
aass^L0j5 
Book 



^^Gl 



OUTLINES 



OF 



MODERN HISTORY, 

ON A NEW PLAN. /^S 

EMBRACING 

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES 



op 



ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS, 



.AND 



GEXERAIi VIEWS 

OP THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION, MILITARY 

AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MAJINERS, CUSTOMS, 

AND SOCIETY OF MODERN NATIONS. 



BY THE REV. ROYAIi ROBBITTS. - 

PUBLISHED BY EDWARD HOPKINS. 
1830. 



DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO WIT : 

District Clerk's Office. 
RE IT REMEMBERED, that on the nineteenth day of January, A. D, IS^'j" ^^e 

Sd Naval Affai^ Arts, Literature, Manners, Customs, and Society ot Modern Nations 

and nronrietors of sucti copies, during the tunes therein mentioned." And also to an ACi, 
pmitFed "An Ac? supplementary to an Act, entitled, an Act for the encouragement of Learn- 
?,i" bv securinc- the cE of Maps, Charts and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such 
cnpiS ?ur"ng Ihe tiinTs therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereol to the arts of 
designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints. ^^^ ^ DAVIS, 

Clerk of the District of Massachusetts. 



11lb-i 



PREFACE. 

Modern History presents so wide and varied a field, 
that a volume of the ordinary size is scarcely adequate to the 
purpose, of pointing out all even of the more striking objects, 
which such a field contains. Indeed, comparatively httle can 
be hoped to be achieved in a very condensed narrative of the 
events of modern ages, on the common plan. It would be 
apt to become a barren outHne, or dry abstract, with little to 
interest or instruct the mind of the reader, and this, almost 
from tlie necessity of the case. The conciseness which is 
studied would preclude aU minute relation, and with that the 
chief charm of history. The character of many publications 
of this class, otherwise very valuable, has suffered from such 
a cause. By the use of two sizes of type, this inconvenience 
is remedied in a degree, if there be sufficient skill in the exe- 
cution ; and a considerable space within a given compass, is 
thus allowed, for lively and entertaining matter not essen- 
tially cormected with the leading facts or fi:ame-work of 
history. The latter, necessarily dry in themselves, and having 
few attractions for common minds, but very important to 
every one tvho would obtain a correct idea of the course of 
events, may be all confined to the larger type : and thus, 
while a very brief epitome of history is presented in that 
part, the reader is at the same time, by means of the smaller 
type, made acquainted with details which will enUven the 
narrative, and the better impress the more material facts on 
his mind. This is one great advantage of reading history on 
the plan of the present work — a plan which has of late been 
adopted with much success ; — though the work possesses other 
peculiarities, which, whether they are happy or not, the 



PREFACE. 

reader, it is believed, will not fail to perceive. The author 
would only add, that in preparing this outline of history, he 
has consulted a large number of valuable authors, from 
whom he has taken whatever was suited to his purposes, in 
many instances with httle variation even in language, though 
he has generally endeavoured to maintain a homogeneous 
style and manner — that he has exercised much care in select- 
ing the materials and topics, and in connecting and arranging 
them — that he has aimed at scrupulous fidelity in the state- 
ment of facts, and impartiality in estimating their value — 
and that he has occasionally interwoven in the narrative such 
moral remarks, and attempted throughout to exhibit such a 
spirit, as to render history not merely an agreeable exercise 
to the understanding, but an impressive lesson to the heart. 



CONTENTS. 



General Remarks, 



Ten periods, 



Introduction 

General Division, 

Period L 



History of the Roman Empire, : 

Judea, 

Parthia, 

Persia, . : : 

China, 
Distinguished Characters, 

Period 
History of the Roman Empire, continued, 

Persia, continued, : : 

China, continued, 
Distinguished Characters, 

Period 
History of the Roman Empire, continued. 

Kingdom of Italy, 

Persia, continued, 

China, continued, 

Spain, 

France, 

England, 
Distinguished Characters, 



//, 



///. 



History of the Arabs or Saracens, 

Eastern or Greek Empire, 
Kingdom of Italy, continued 
Spain, continued, 
Prance, continued, , 

Distinguished Characters, 



Period IV. 



History of the New Western Empire, 
France, continued, . 
Italy, contintaed, 
Spain, continued; 
Germany, 

England, continued. 
Eastern Empire, continued, 
China, continued, 
Saracens, continued. 

Distinguished Characters, 

Crusades, 

History of Prance, continued, . 
England, continued, 
Germany, continued. 
Eastern Empire, continued, 
Saracens, continued, 
China, continued. 

Distinguished Characters, 



Period 



Period VL 



125 
143 
146 
166 
157 
159 
160 
161 



VI CONTENTS. 

Period Vn. 




History of the Turkish Empu-e, 




164 


Italian States, continued, ' . 




165 


France, continued,. . 




167 


England, continued, 




171 


Germany, continued, 


. 


178 


China, continued, 




181 


Distinguished Characters, 




182 


Period VUI. 




History of the Turkish Empire, continued, 


• • • • • 


185 


Italian States, continued, 


• • . . 


187 


France, continued, 


• • • « . 


189 


England, continued, 


. 


195 


Germany, continued. 


• . 


207 


Spain, continued, 

Holland, . : : 


. • • • 


210 


: : . : . 


211 


America, . . 




213 


Distinguished Characters, 


! 


218 


Period 2X 




History of Prance, continued, . 


• . 


224 


Great Britain, continued,^ . 


. 


230 


Germany, continued, 


. . • • 


246 


Spain, continued, . 


. 


248 


Turkish Empire, continued, 


• . 


250 


British Colonies in North America 


> • • • 


252 


Russia, 




259 


Sweden, . . . , 


: 


261 


Distinguished Characters, 




263 


Period X. 




History of Sweden, continued, . 




271 


Prussia, 




273 


Germany, continued, 




277 


Poland, 




283 


Russia, continued, . 




286 


England, continued. 




292 


France, continued, . 




299 


Italian States, continued, 




313 


Spain, continued. 




313 


Netherlands, continued, 




315 


Turkish Empire, continued, 




316 


China, continued, 




318 


Persia, continued, . 




318 


India, 




319 


United States, 




321 


South America, 




325 


Distinguished Characters, 




326 


General Views. 




Feudal System, .... 


• . 


342 


Chivalry, .... 


. • 


345 


Romances, 


. • • • 


358 


Pilgrimages, . : : : 


: : 


359 


Manners and Character of the Gothic or Scandinavian nations, 


360 


Learning and Arts, 


. . 


363 


Discoveries and Inventions, 


. 


370 


Incidents and Curious Particulars, 


. 


376 


Present state of several Nations in Agricultur 
Education, Trade, Manufactures, &c. 


e, Roads, Conveyances, Interoouj 


rse, 


. . 


380 


Christian Church, 


. 


388 



MODERN HISTORY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Sec. 1. Writers who have divided History into Ancient 
and Modern, are not agreed as to the most convenient sepa- 
rating hne between them. Some have taken the subversion 
of the Western Empire of the Romans as the dividing 
period ; and others the establishment of the Neio Empire of 
the West, under Charlemagne. We however agree with a 
third, and probably a more numerous class, who adopt the 
commencement of the Christian Era as the line of separa- 
tion. In this there is an evident propriety. 

2. It is the epoch from which civihzed nations reckon time, 
both backwards to the beginning of creation, and forwards to 
the end of the world. Add to this, the event (the birth of 
Christ) that forms this era, is the most important of events. 
It has had a commanding influence upon all subsequent his- 
tory. It has altered the aspect of all human affairs, and 
it will alter them more and more, as Christianity becomes ex- 
tended. The state of the civilized world was also singular. 
A change had taken place in the establishment of a mighty 
despotism, which was destined to oppress the nations, through 
many successive generations. 

§ The period from which we commence Modern History, cannot 
be contemplated with too deep an interest. It was a remarkable era 
in Divine Providence. " The fullness of the time was come" — the 
ancient order of things was drawing to a close, and new scenes in 
the moral world, were henceforth to be presented to the view of mai>- 
kind. It is therefore associated with our most solemn thoughts of 
the dispensations of the Supreme Being towards his creatures. It 
is the period whence we date the commencement of the spiritual re- 
novation of the world. 

The state of the world, in a political point of view, also deserves 
consideration. The principal nations were reduced under one head. 
Wars and dissentions, of long continuance and infinite ferocity, ha- 
ving terminated in one most formidable power, the whole earth en- 
joyed an unheard of calm. Mankind, for a short time, tasted the 
sweets of peace, though in servitude. One man was master of 



8 MODERN HISTORY. 

the lives and fortunes of all the rest, and therefore even the spirit of 
conquest could scarcely desire more. 

3. The authenticity and the abundance of the materials 
of modern histoiy, will be hailed with peculiar satisfaction by 
tlie inquirer after tmth. A considerable portion of ancient 
history is plunged into darkness and uncertainty, from a va- 
riety of causes. And the scantiness, in some instances, of 
the materials from which it is drawn, is often perplexing. 
But both the ecclesiastical and civil records of modern histo- 
ry, illustrate, with desirable fullness, the state of the times. 
It must be owned, however, that the rage of the barbarians 
who subverted the Roman Empire, has deprived us of some 
means of information which we should otherwise have pos- 
sessed. But it is wonderful, after all, that so many monu- 
ments of the earlier periods of modern history, have come 
down to us. 

§ The causes that have operated to render some portions of an- 
cient history obscure, are such as the lapse of numerous ages ; a se- 
ries of great revolutions, in consequence of which the memory of 
many events was lost ; the fury of barbarians, by which numerous 
monuments of early times have been destroyed ; and more than all 
' the rest, the designed or accidental destruction of libraries. 

Some noble collections of books perished before the Christian era, 
particularly the celebrated library of Alexandria. This library was 
founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 284 years B. C, and con- 
sisted of a vast collection of records, histories, poems, and other 
works. The number of volumes was reckoned at 400,000, and they 
might have been as many as were in all the world beside. Before 
the art of printing, books were comparatively scarce ; and of some, 
there might have been no other copies than those contained in this 
library. It perished in the flames of Alexandria, when Julius Caesar 
took that city. 

In later ages, large libraries have been destroyed, particularly the 
same library at Alexandria after it was revived, and collections had 
been made during several centuries. In the latter instance 700,000 
volumes perished. But books by this time had been much more 
multiplied, and though numerous destructions took place, many have 
survived the wrecks of ages. 

GENERAL DIVISION. 

Modern History may be divided into ten periods. They have 
each their peculiar characteristic, by which they may be always re- 
membered, and by which distinct views of the subject are designed 
to be imparted to the mind. 

Period I, will extend from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, 



INTRODUCTION. ^ 

to the reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. 0. This 
is the period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians. 

Period II, will extend from the reign of Constantine the 
Great, 306 years A. C, to the Extinction of the Western 
Empire, 476 years A. C. This is the period of the Nov- 
fJiprti Inv cLSions t 

Period III, will extend from the Extinction of the Wes- 
tern Empire, 476 years A. C, to the Flight of Mahomet, 
622 years A. C. This is the period of the Justinian Code^ 
and the Wars of Belisarius. 

Period IV, wiU extend from the Flight of Mahomet, 622 
years A. C, to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 
years A. C. This is the period of the Establishment of the 
Saraceil Dominion. 

Period Y, will extend from the Crowning of Charle- 
magne at Rome, 800 years A. C, to the First Crusade, 1095 
years A. C. This is the period of the Neiu Western Em- 
f)ZTe> 

Period VI, mil extend from the First Cmsade, 1095 
years A. C, to the Founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 
years A. C. This is the period of the Crusades. 

Period VII, will extend from the Founding of the Tur- 
kish Empire, 1299 years A. C, to the Taking of Constanti- 
nople, 1453 years A. C. This is the period of the Papal 
Schism/. 

Period VIII, will extend from the Taking of Constan- 
tinople, 1453 years A. C, lo the Edict of Nantes, {Nantz- ) 
1598 years A. C. This is the period of the Reformation. 

Period IX, will extend from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 
years A. C, to the Death of Charles XII, of Sweden, 1718 
years A. C. This is the period of the English Common- 
wealth. , ,,^11 VTT 

Period X, will extend from the Death of Charles Xli, 
df Sweden, 1718 years A. C, to the final Restoration of the 
Bourbons, 1815 years A. C. This is the period of the Ame- 
rican and French Revolutions. 



10 MODERN HISTORI". — PERIOD I. 

PERIOD I. 

The period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians^ extend- 
ing from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, to the Reign 
of Constantine the Great, 306 A. C. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 1. The great event with which this period properly 
commences, is the Birth of Jesus Christ. It belongs to 
the Roman History, only from the fact that Judea, the coun- 
try of Our Saviour, was held in subjection to Rome. It is 
strictly an event of the Jewish History, and is hereafter to be 
more fully noticed under that head. 

Here it may be mentioned only, that the Birth of Jesus oc- 
curred, according to the common reckoning, in the 3 1st year of 
the reign of Augustus, 752 years after the building of Rome, 
and in the 195th Olympiad, under the consulship of Caius Ju- 
lius Ceesar. It is the general opinion of the learned, how- 
ever, that our Saviour was born four years earlier than this 
date, viz. in the 27th of Augustus, and that the common 
reckoning or era is a mistake. 

According to this opinion, Jesus, in the year 1, A. C, (the 
vulgar date) was really four years old. 

§ It is a circumstance worthy of remark, that the temple of Janus, 
at Rome, which was always open in time of war, and shut only du- 
ring peace, was shut at the period of our Saviour's birth, and that, 
for the third instance only, during the space of more than 700 years. 

2. Rome had been an empire in the more proper sense of 
the word, from the beginning of the reign of Augustus. At 
the time of the nativity of Christ, the empire was at the me- 
ridian of its splendour, or perhaps a little past it. Most of the 
nations had bowed to the Roman yoke ; and luxury and the 
arts poured in upon the queen of cities. 

It had been for some years the most powerful dominion of 
the ancient world, and continued thus to be for several suc- 
ceeding centuries. The times, however, were degenerate, 
and the real strength of the Roman empire, if it had not be- 
gun to diminish at this epoch, was certainly not greater than 
during the last days of the repubUc. A few nations after- 
wards were added to its sway, but these rather weakened than 
augmented the power of Rome. The wide extent of its do- 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 11 

minions, we shall hereafter see, was one of the causes of its 
decline and downfall. 

But the pomp and glory of so great a monarchy, continu- 
ed hng after the seeds of weakness and decay were sown. 
Distant nations admired and dreaded the splendid spectacle. 
Ambassadors from every region daily arrived at Rome, to do ho- 
m£Lge to her gi*eatness, or to seek her friendship and assistance. 

3. Augustus, who first established a despotism over the 
Roman people, died 14 yeai's after the birth of Christ. The 
e^'ents which took place between the birth of Christ and the 
death of Augustus, pertaining to the Romans, were neither 
many nor important. 

During this interval, Augustus adopted Tiberius, and fi- 
nally associated him in the empire. Archelaus, king of Ju- 
dea, was deposed, and that country became strictly a Roman 
province. Germanicus, grandson of Augustus, successfully 
commanded in Pannonia, and Q,. Varus was signally defeat- 
ed by the Germans, with the loss of three Roman legions. 

4. Luxury and the arts having enervated the Roman peo- 
ple, and the former civil wars and the consequent calamities 
having paved the way for a different order of things, in the 
quiet establishment of despotism under Augustus, their fate 
from tliis time was fixed. He found no difficulty in riveting 
their chains, and for long ages, a series of despots, most of 
them monsters of vice and cruelty, ruled with a rod of iron, 
this once liberty-loving people, and mistress of nations. 

§ Amidst the refinements and elegancies of modern times, con- 
nected with our ideas of the progressive improvement of society, \ve 
are perhaps inclined to overlook and undervalue the ages of antiqui- 
ty. Many seem to forget what scenes of brightness and grandeur 
have illumined the nations before us, and how mournfully those 
scenes ai'e departed. 

The pensive, contemplative mind, however, does justice to such a 
subject ; and no instance of human greatness of old, strikes such a 
mind more forcibly, than that of the proud empire of Rome, under 
her CoBsars. The memorial is both pleasant and mournful to the 
soul. The mixture of misery with its splendour, renders it, if any 
thing, more touching and impressive. 

5. Tiberius, who had been named in the will of Augus- 
tus as his successor, immediately assumed the government, 
14 years A. C. He was the son of Augustus's wife, Livia, 
by a former husband, and had distinguished himself in war. 

During the first eight or nine years of his reign, he put on 



12 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

the appearance of justice and moderation, practising the most 
consummate dissimulation. His vicious and tyrannical disposi- 
tion was indulged during this time in a very covert manner; but 
afterwards it was openly manifested, and carried to a most ter- 
rible extreme. His cruelties and debaucheries were enormous. 
The first objects of his suspicions were Agrippa Posthu- 
mus, a grandson of Augustus, whom he ordered to be execu- 
ted in compliance with the pretended w^ill of that emperor ; 
and the accomplished Germanicus, his nephew and distin- 
guished general, whom he caused to be secretly poisoned. The 
Roman people indulged in unbounded sorrow, upon the death 
of Germanicus. 

Afterwards, when he gave a loose to his passions, the best 
blood in Rome flowed. By means of Sejanus, a Roman 
knight whom he took into his confidence, and who exceeded 
even Tiberius in dissimulation, he exercised the most shock- 
ing cruelties towards his subjects. Sejanus first fell a victim 
to his crimes, in attempting to assume the government him 
self ; and a few years after Tiberius was strangled or poison 
ed by one of his officers. 

§ From the 12th year of his reign, Tiberius was persuaded by Se 
janus to abandon Rome, and to retire to the island of Caprea, as a 
more convenient place for the indulgence of his indolence and de- 
baucheries. His gloomy and cruel disposition also followed him 
there, and by means of this base minion, he perpetrated all manner 
of crimes. 

At this time he was 67 years old, and the unpleasantness of his 
person comported with the deformity of his mind. He was quite 
bald in front ; his face was disgustingly ulcerated, and covered over 
with plasters; his body was bent forward, while its unnatural tallness 
and leanness increased its ugliness. He now gave himself up to every 
excess. He spent whole nights in eating and drinking, and he ap- 
pointed two of his table companions to the first posts of the empire, for 
no other merit, than that of having sat up with him two days and two 
nights, without interruption. These he called his friends of all hours. 
His libidinous indulgences were still more detestable, and the most 
eminent women of Rome were obliged to sacrifice to him their virtue 
and honour. 

His jealousy, which fastened on persons of the highest distinction, 
induced him to condemn them to death on the slightest pretences. 
Indeed to such an extent were legalized murders carried, that he be- 
gan to grow weary of particular executions, and therefore gave or- 
d,ers that all the accused should be put to death together, without 
further examination. The whole city of Rome was filled with 
slaughter and mourning. The place of execution was a horrible scene j 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 13 

dead bodies putrifying lay heaped on each other, while even the friends 
of the wretched convicts were denied the satisfaction of weeping. 

In putting to death sixteen out of twenty senators whom he had 
chosen for his council, he uttered a sentiment never to be forgot- 
ten in the records of human cruelty. " Let tliem hate me, so long 
as they obey me." This monster often satisfied his eyes, with the 
tortures of the wretches who were put to death before him ; and in 
the days of Suetonius, the rock was still shown from which he or- 
dered such as displeased him to be thrown headlong. 

He died in the seventy-eighth year of his age, and twenty-third 
of his reign. 37 A. C. 

6. At this time the Romans were arrived at the highest 
pitch of effeminacy and vice. The wealth of almost every 
nation in the empire, having long circulated through the 
city, brought with it the hixuries peculiar to each country. 
Rome was one vast mass of pollution, and sensuality. It 
was thought a refinement upon pleasure to make it unnatu- 
ral. Abating their genius, there never was a more detesta- 
ble people, than the Romans at this epoch, and indeed, du- 
ring the continuance of the empire. Cruelty and hist were 
essential ingredients in the Roman character. 

§ It was a burst of joy, says Chateaubriand, which Tiberius was 
imable to repress, on finding the Roman people and senate sunk 
below even the baseness of his own heart. 

Again, according to this writer, death formed an essential part of 
the festivities of the Romans. It was introduced as a contrast, and 
for the purpose of giving a zest to the pleasures of hfe. Gladiators, 
courtezans, and musicians, were procured to enliven entertainments. 
A Roman on quitting a haunt of infamous pleasure, went to enjoy 
the spectacle of a wild beast devouring human victims, and quaffing 
their blood. 

7. Caligula had been adopted by Tiberius for his heir and 
successor in the empire. He was the son of Germanicus, 
and grand-nephew of Tiberius, and so called from Caliga, 
a short buskin which he wore, in imitation of the common 
sentinels. He commenced his reign immediately on the 
death of Tiberius, 37 years A. C. and at his accession, was 
popular from the virtues of his father. 

He commenced his reign with a show of clemency and 
moderation. He restored some of the forms of the republic 
which his predecessor had entirely disregarded, and he abol- 
ished arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But tyranni- 
cal by nature, in less than eight months he acted out his 
real disposition, in cruelties, extortions, and impieties, which 
surpassed even those of Tiberius. 

2 



14 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

Joining absurdity and extravagance to vice, he became 
supremely contemptible, as well as detestable. Indeed, his 
follies and absurdities were peculiar to himself, so that accord- 
ing to an idea of Seneca, he was one of those productions of 
nature, in which there was the greatest possible combination 
of vice and power. He died by assassination, in the fourth 
year of his reign and 29th of his age. A. C 41. 

§ Among the cruelties of this imperial monster, were his murder 
of Gemellus his kinsman, of Silenus his father-in-law, of Grecinus 
a senator of noted integrity, who refused to witness falsely against 
Silenus ; afterwards, his killing many of the senate, and then citing 
them to appear as if they had killed themselves ; indeed, the sacri- 
fice of crowds of victims to his avarice, or suspicion. 

He condemned many persons of the highest quality to dig in the 
mines, and to repair the high-ways, for ridiculing his profusion. 
He cast great numbers of old and infirm men, and poor decrepid 
housekeepers, to wild beasts, in order to free the state from sucli un- 
serviceable citizens. He frequently had men racked before him 
while he sat at table, ironically pitying their misfortunes, and blam- 
ing their executioner. And as the height of insane cruelty, he once 
expressed the wish " that all the Roman people had but one neck, 
that he might dispatch them at a single blow." 

His impieties, and the depravation of his appetites, made hhn 
still more a disgrace to human nature. He claimed divine honours, 
and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to be offered to him- 
self, as a God. He caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter and 
some other gods to be struck off, and his own to be put in their 
places. He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and 
would frequently defy Jupiter, crying out in a sentence of Homer, 
" Do you conquer me or I will conquer you." Scarcely any lady 
of quality in Rome escaped his depraved solicitations. He com- 
mitted incest with his three sisters, two of whom he prostituted to 
his vile companions, and then banished them, as adulteresses and 
conspirators against his person. 

His follies and prodigality completed the infamy of his charac- 
ter. The luxuries of the former emperors were trifling, compared 
to his. He invented dishes of immense value, and had even jewels 
dissolved among his sauces. He sometimes had services of pure 
gold, instead of meat, presented before his guests ; observing, "that a 
man should be an economist or an emperor." 

For his favorite horse Incitatus, he built a stable of marble, and 
a manger of ivory ; and appointed it a house, fwrniture, and a 
kitchen, in order to a respectful entertainment of its visitors. Some- 
times indeed, the emperor invited Incitatus to his own table ; and it 
is said that he would have appointed it to the consulship, had he 
not been prevented by death. 

These and a thousand other follies, particularly the building of a 
bridge three miles and a half across an arm of the sea in a ridicu- 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 15 

loiis manner, and which the first storm annihilated, constituted such 
a drain upon the public resonrces, as became exceedingly oppressive. 
Of a fortune of £18,000,000 sterling left by Tiberius, none remained 
in a space little beyond one year. He of course put in practice all 
kinds of rapine and extortion. Professor Heeren remarks, that 
" he was more pernicious to the state by his insane prodigality, 
than by his savage cruelty." 

Against such a wretch,-we naturally look for treason and conspiracies. 
After several attempts, his death was at length accomplished by Cassius 
Cherea, tribune of the praetorian bands, who was an ardent lover of 
freedom. Leagued with a number of conspirators, he met the em- 
peror in a little vaulted gallery that led to one of his baths, and 
struck him to the ground, crying out, " tyrant, think upon this." 
He was immediately dispatched by the other conspirators, who 
rushed in and pierced him with thirty wounds. 

8. A temporary confusion followed the death of Caligula, 
and in this crisis of affairs, the senate attempted to restore 
the repu'blic. But the spirit of Roman liberty had fled ; the 
populace, and in general the army, opposed the design. 
Claudius at this juncture, havmg been accidentally found 
m a lurking place, to which he had repaired through fear, 
some of the prtctorian guards proclaimed him emperor, at 
the moment he expected nothing but death ; 41 A. C. 
Claudius was the uncle of Caligula, and grand-son of Mark 
Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus. 

Claudius was a man below mediocrity in understanding 
and education ; and his capacity for business was even con- 
temptible. He became almost of course infamous for his vi- 
ces, and the dupe of his associates and even of his domestics. 
Many were the cruelties committed during his reign, though 
they seem to have been suggested principally by his wicked 
directors, among whom was the notorious Messalina, his wife. 

§ The stupidity of Claudius was such, that he was alike indifferent, 
whatever was done, and often was he so operated upon by his fears, 
that he would consent to any act however unjust. His own family 
on one pretence or another was almost exterminated, and great num- 
bers of others fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of Messalina and her 
minions, who ruled him at will. The historian, Suetonius, assures 
us, that there were no less than thirty-five Senators and above three 
hundred knights, executed in his reign. 

One enterprise of importance marked his reign, and that 
was his expedition into Britain, 43 A. C. He undertook to 
reduce the island, and after visiting it in person, left his gene- 
rals, Plautius and Vespasian, to prosecute a war, which was 
carried on for several years with various success. The Silures 



16 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

or inhabitants of South AVales, under their king, Caractacus, 
(Caradoc,) made a spirited resistance, though without avail in 
the end. Their king was led captive to Rome. 

Messalina advanced in boldness as in profligacy, but her 
excesses became the occasion of her destruction. The em- 
peror was persuaded to put her to death for her shameless in- 
fidelity to him. Afterwards he married Agrippina, the daugh- 
ter of his brother Germanicus, who had poisoned her former 
husband, and v/ho at length poisoned him. 
. Making every effort to secure the succession to the empire 
to her son Domitius Aenobarbus, (called Nero,) she prevail- 
ed on Claudius to adopt him, and then effecting the death of 
her husband, she opened the way to the throne for one, who 
was destined to exceed in wickedness, if that were possible, 
any that went before him. Claudius was put to death in the 
fifteenth year of his reign and sixty-third of his age. 

§ Among the illustrious sufferers in the reign of Claudius, were 
Petus and his faithful Arria, whose story ought not to be passed over. 
Cecina Petus associated in the revolt of Camillus, had endeavoured 
to escape into Dalmatia. Being apprehended, he was conveyed in 
a ship to Rome. Arria, who had been long the partner of his affec- 
tions and misfortunes, entreated his keepers, to be taken in the same 
vessel. 

" It is usual," said she, " to grant a man of his quality a few slaves 
to dress, and undress, and attend him ; but I will perform all these 
ofRces, and save you the trouble of a more numerous retinue." Her 
fidelity, however, could not prevail. She therefore hired a fisher- 
man's bark, and thus kept company with the ship in which her hus- 
band was conveyed, through the voyage. 

They had an only son, equally beautiful and virtuous. This youth 
died at the time his father was confined to his bed, by a dangerous 
disorder. However, the affectionate Arria concealed her son's death, 
and in her visits to her husband, manifested her usual cheerfulness. 
Being asked how her son did, she replied that he was calm, and only 
left her husband's chamber to give vent to her tears. 

When Petus was condemned to die by his oAvn hands, Arria 
used every art to inspire him with resolution ; and at length finding 
him continue timid and wavering, she took the poinard, and stabbing 
herself in his presence, presented it to him saying, " it gives me no 
pain, my Petus." 

9. Rome at this era contained nearly seven millions inhabi- 
tants, a number so prodigious that nothing but the best evi- 
dence could prevent our doubt of its accuracy. Corruption 
and luxury were excessive. The Roman military spirit, 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 17 

though much relaxed, still continued to awe mankind, by the 
terror of its name. 

10, Nero Claudius, (the name he assumed,) the son of 
Agrippina, succeeded to the empire (54 A. C.) under favora- 
ble circumstances, and like his predecessors, for a short time, 
promised to govern with moderation and justice. So well 
did he conceal his innate depravity, that scarcely any sus- 
pected that his virtues were feigned. 

The care of his education had been entrusted to Seneca, 
the famous philosopher, though he seemed not to have pro- 
fited under his inatructer any otherwise than to become af- 
fected and pedantic. While, however, he was controled by 
Seneca, and Burrhuss captain of the prcEtorian guards, a wor- 
thy and experienced officer, Nero appeared just and humane ; 
but he could not long restrain the feelings of his base nature. 

At the expiration of five years, he broke over all the bounds 
of decency and moderation, and pursued a course of conduct 
exceeding in puerility, levity, ferocity, and tyranny, what- 
ever had been done before him. He became one of the most 
odious characters recorded in history. His flagitiousness was 
manifested in the murder of his mother, his wife Octavia, 
his tutor Seneca, and Lucan the poet, and Burrhuss his bene- 
factor ; in extirpating many of the principal families of 
Rome on suspicion of treason ; in setting the city on fire, 
charging the crime on the christians, and then punishing 
them with unheard of tortures ; and in unnumbered other 
acts in which he outraged reason, and nature itself. 

His meanness and puerility almost surpass behef, and 
Rome contained not another so despicable a wretch in the 
character of an actor, musician or gladiator. At length hav- 
ing become an object of perfect hatred and contempt, a re- 
bellion of his subjects headed by Yindex, an illustrious Gaul, 
and Galba who commanded in Spain, crushed this imperial 
monster, in the thirtieth year of his age, after a reign of four- 
teen years, A. C. 69. Too cowardly to kill himself, he died 
by the hand of a slave, just as he was on the point of being 
taken, and dehvered up to public justice. 

§ The burning of Rome by Nero was an act of mere wantonness. 
Some one happening to say in his presence, that the world might be 
burnt when he was dead, "Nay," replied Nero, "let it be burnt 
while I am living." Accordingly, as most historians report, he set it 
on fire, and standing upon a high tower, he indulged the pleasure of 

2* 



18 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

fancying it a representation of the burning of Troy. The confla- 
gration continued nine days, and a great part of the city was con- 
sumed. 

A conspiracy formed against him by Piso, but which was prema- 
turely discovered, opened a train of suspicions, that ahnost turned 
Rome into a field of blood. All who were implicated or suspected 
of being so, he executed without mercy. It was at this time that 
Seneca and Lucan suffered. 

No master was secure from the vengeance of his slaves, nor even 
parents from the baser attempts of their children. Not only 
throughout Rome, but the whole surrounding country, bodies of sol- 
diers were seen in pursuit of the suspected and the guilty ; whole 
crowds of wretches loaded with chains, were led every day to the 
gates of the palace, to wait their sentence from the tyrant's own lips, 
who always presided at tlie tortures in person, attended by Tigelli- 
nus, one of the most abandoned men in Rome, but now his principal 
minister. 

" The principal reason why the despotism of Nero and his pre- 
decessors was so quietly borne by the nation, lay in the fact, that a 
great part of them were fed by the emperors. From the monthly 
distributio-n of corn of the times of the republic, there now sprang 
up the extraordinary congiaria (gifts in corn or money) and vi- 
ceratwnes (distributions of raw flesh.) The times of tyranny 
were generally the golden days of the rabble." 

During the reign of Nero, the Britons, under their queen 
Boadicea revolted, and defeated the Romans with the loss of 
70,000 men. The latter, lio\vever, avenged this loss-at length 
by the slaughter of 80,000 Britons, which completely broke 
the British spirit and power. 

A war was also carried on against the Parthians, under 
the conduct of Corbulo, who obtained many victories over 
them. About this time also, 67 A. C, the Jews, who had 
levolted under the tyranny of Florus the Roman governor, 
Vvere massacred in great numbers. 

11. Galba, who was associated with Vindex, in the in- 
surrection which issued in the destruction of Nero, succeeded 
the latter in the empire 68 A. C. Vindex, at the commence- 
ment of his revolt, generously proclaimed Galba emperor, 
and after the death of Nero, both the senate and the legions 
under his command, sanctioned this measure. 

Before his elevation mankind thought well of Galba. His 
descent was illustrious. His reputation as a commander 
stood high, and no stain was cast on his courage or virtue. 
Compared with his predecessors, he was certainly a respecta- 
ble emperor. In seeking to accomplish two important ob- 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 19 

jects, viz., the punishment of the enormous vices then preva- 
lent, and the replenishing of the treasury, he was unduly 
severe ; and as he was naturally parsimonious, he became 
an object of contempt and ridicule. 

§ It was impolitic in Galba, to think of making the Roman people 
pass at Once from the extreme of luxury to that of sobriety and 
economy. The state was too much corrupted to admit of such an 
immediate and total change. The emperor's intentions, however, 
should have shielded him from reproach ; and had he not suffered 
his assistants to abuse his confidence, and had he been a little more 
equal, moderate, and conciliatory in his administration, he would 
have been as well thought of when an emperor, as he was when a 
private person. 

It is mentioned as an instance of his severity, that upon some dis- 
respectful treatment of him from a certain body of his subjects, he 
ordered a body of horse attending him to ride in among them, and 
thus killed 7000 of them, and afterwards decimated the survivors. 

His parsimony is indicated by the following circumstances. He 
once groaned upon having an expensive soup served up for him at 
his table. To a steward for his fidelity he presented a plate of 
beans. And a femous player upon the flute, named Canus, having 
greatly delighted him, he drew out his purse and gave him five- 
pence, telling him it was private and not public money. His popu- 
larity sunk by such ill-timed parsimony. Through his love of 
money, some notorious villains purchased their safet)^ 

Galba reigned only seven months. He perished in the 
seventy-third year of his age, in consequence of the attempt 
of Otho, one of his generals, to obtain the throne. Otho ex- 
pected to be adopted by Galba for his successor ; but the 
emperor, discarding all favouritism, sought the good of the 
empire by nominating the virtuous Piso. Otho consequent- 
ly had recourse to arms, and thus accomplished the death both 
of Galba and Piso. 

12. Otho was now raised to the throne, having received 
from the senate the titles usually given to the emperors, 69 
A. C. He began his reign with several signal acts of mercy 
and of justice. The character of this prince, an unusual oc- 
currence, was improved by advancement; in a private station 
he was all that was detestable ; but as an emperor he ap- 
peared courageous, benevolent, and humane. 

The good course, however, which he had marked out for 
himself, was soon terminated. He reigned only ninety-five 
days. Vitellius, who had been proclaimed emperor by his 
army in Germany, gave Otho battle at a place near Mantua, 



20 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

where the army of the latter was defeated, and he in a fit of 
despair ended his Ufe by his own hand. 69 A. C. 

§ Otho was descended from the ancient kings of Etruria. 

It has been observed that the last moments of Otho's hfe were 
those of a philosopher. He comforted his soldiers who lamented 
his fortune, and he expressed his concern for their safety, when they 
earnestly solicited to pay him the last friendly offices before he stab- 
bed himself; and he observed that it was better for one man to die, 
than that all should be involved in ruin for his obstinacy. 

No circumstance, however, can excuse the crime of suicide, a 
vice which was awfully prevalent among the Romans. 

13. Vitellius, upon his success, assumed the government 
69 A. C, but he retained it only eight months. This wretch 
was not more given to cruelty, than to the infamous indul- 
gence of his appetites. Like Nero, he abandoned himself to 
every species of flagitiousness and excess. 

He perished justly. Vespasian, who at this time com- 
manded the Roman army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor 
by his legions. Entering Italy, a great part of the country 
submittted to his arms, and even Vitellius meanly capitu- 
lated to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. This 
act of cowardice rousing the indignation of the people, he 
was compelled to oppose Vespasian by force, but without 
effect. One of the generals of the conqueror took possession 
of Rome ; and Vitellius, falling into the hands of a party of 
the enemy, was ignominiously put to death. 

§ Instances of the cruel disposition of this emperor are the follow- 
ing. Going to visit one of his associates who was in a violent fever, 
he mingled poison with his water, and delivered it to him with his 
own hands, in order to obtain his possessions. He never pardoned 
money-lenders who presumed to demand payment of his former 
debts ; but taking awaj^ their lives he both cancelled their claims, 
and succeeded to their estate. 

A Roman knight being dragged away to execution, and crying 
out that he had made the emperor his heir, Vitellius demanded to 
see the will, where finding himself joint inheritor with another, he 
ordered both to be executed, that he might enjoy the legacy alone. 

Gluttony, however, was his predominant vice. In order to be able 
to renew his meals at pleasure, he brought himself to an habit of 
vomiting. His entertainments were prodigiously expensive ; but 
oftener to others, than to himself It has been remarked that had 
he reigned long, the whole empire would not have been sufficient to 
maintain his table. 

In one particular dish, did this imperial glutton out-do all the for- 
mer profusion of the most luxurious Romans. This was of such 
magnitude as to be called the shield of Minerva, and was filled with 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 21 

a medley, made from the air-bladders of the fish called scarri, the 
brains of pheasants and woodcocks, the tongues of the most costly 
birds, and the spawn of lampreys brought from the Carpathian sea. 
14. Vespasian, having been declared emperor, by the 
tinanimous consent of the senate and the army, 70 A. C. 
was received with the greatest joy on his arrival at Rome. 
Though of mean descent, he deserved the purple, and reign- 
ed during ten years, with great popularity. He was distin- 
guished by clemency, affability, and a simple, frugal mode of 
life. His frugality, however, bordered upon avarice, which 
was the piincipal defect of his character. 

In his administration of government, he acted under the 
forms of the republic, and even restored the senate to its de- 
liberative rights. The famous war against the Jews, was 
terminated during the reign of Vespasian, by the arms of his 
son Titus. After this, the empire was in profound peace, and 
the emperor, having associated Titus in the government, soon 
departed this hfe, to the universal regret of the Roman peo- 
ple, in the 70th year of his age, 79 A. C. 

§ It was some time before Vespasian could give security and 
peace to the empire. When this object was effected, he began to 
correct the abuses which had grown up under the tyranny of his 
predecessors. He restrained the licentiousness of the army — degra- 
ded such senators as were unworthy of their station — abridged the 
tedious processes in the courts of justice — re-edified such parts of 
the city as had suffered in the late commotions — and extended his 
paternal care over all parts of the empire. 

Vespasian was liberal in the encouragement of learning and the 
arts. He was particularly kind to Josephus, the Jewish historian. 
Quintillian and Pliny, who flourished in his reign, were highly es- 
teemed by him ; and indeed the professors of every liberal art or 
science, were sure to experience his bounty. 

He died by disease, a death quite unusual with the masters of 
Rome. Taken with an indisposition at Campania, which from the 
begmning he declared would be fatal, he cried out in the spirit of pa- 
ganism, " Methinks I am gomg to be a god." When brought to the 
last extremity, and perceiving that he was about to expire, he decla- 
red that an emperor ought to die standing; and therefore raising him- 
self upon his feet, he breathed his last in the arms of his supporters. 
15. Titus succeeded to the empire upon the death of his 
father. 79 A. 0. His character is celebrated as that of a 
highly humane, just and generous prince. He so devoted 
himself to acts of beneficence, that recollecting one evening 
that he had done none during the day, he exclaimed, "O, my 
friends, I have lost a day !" His reign was a short, but pros- 



22 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

peroiis and happy one. He died in his 41st year, having 
reigned but little more than two years. His brother Domi- 
tian was suspected as being the author of his death. 

§ Before he came to the throne, his character was thought not to 
be unexceptionable ; but whatever vices he had indulged in, he 
seems to have abandoned upon that event. It is related as an in- 
stance of the government of his passions, that he relinquished the 
hand of his beloved Berenice, sister to king Agrippa, a woman of 
the greatest beauty, and the most refined allurements. Knowing 
that the connection with her was disagreeable to the Roman people, 
he conquered his affections, and sent her away, notwithstanding 
their mutual affection, and all her arts. 

He was so tender of the lives of his subjects, that he took upon 
him the office of High Priest, in order to keep his hands undefiled 
with blood. He so little regarded such as censured or abused him, 
that he was heard to say, " Wlien I do nothing worthy of censure, 
why should I be displeased at it '?" 

During his reign, Rome was three days on fire, without intermis- 
sion ; and this was followed by a plague, in which 10,000 persons 
were buried in a day. Titus, from his own resources, repaired the 
devastations of the city, and in all respects acted as a father to his 
people in their calamities. About this time the towns of Campania 
were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. Upon this occasion 
Pliny, the naturalist, lost his life, by venturing too near the volcano. 

When Titus was taken ill, he retired into the country of the Sa- 
bines, to his father's house. There his indisposition was increased 
by a burning fever. Modestly lifting his eyes to heaven, though 
with a spirit which Christianity cannot approve, and without the 
hope it inspires, he complained of the severity of his fate, which, 
was about to remove him from the world, where he had been em- 
ployed in making a grateful people happy. 

Domitian has incurred the suspicion of hastening his brother's 
end, by ordering him to be placed, during his agony, in a tub full of 
snow, where he expired. 

15. Domitian, upon the death of his brother, assumed the 
purple, 81 A. C. The beginning of his reign promised a con- 
tinuance of their happiness to the Roman people. But the 
scene soon changed, and Domitian became a most execrable 
villain and tyrant. He condemned to death many of the 
most illustrious Romans, and witnessed, -with the most fero- 
cious pleasure, the agonies of his victims. He caused him- 
self tO\be styled God and Lore/, in all the papers that were 
presented to him. Though not destitute of learning himself, 
he banished the philosophers from Rome. 

His reign w' as an era of prodigality and luxury, as well as 
of inhumanity and baseness. The people were loaded with 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 23 

insupportable taxes, to furnish ..spectacles and games for their 
amusement. His leisure was spent in the most degradinff 
pursuits. One of the most constant occupations of his pri- 
vate hours, was the catching and killing of flies. 

In his reign occurred the second great persecution of the 
christians, (that under Nero being the first) in which 40,000 
of that profession were destroyed. 

His general, Agricola, met with signal success in the ex- 
pedition against Britain, though Domitian derived no renown, 
but rather disgrace from it, in consequence of his ungrateful 
treatment of Agricola. After a reign of 1.5 years, he was 
assassinated at the instigation of liis wife. 

^ To the senate and nobility, Domitian was particularly hostile 
frequently threatenuig to extirpate them all. He delighted to ex- 
pose them bot^h to terror and ridicule. He once assembled the au- 
gust body of the senate, to know in what vessel a turbot might be 
most conveniently dressed. , s ^t uc 

At another time, inviting them to a public entertainment, he received 
hem al very formally at the entrance of his palace, and introduced 
thenb mto a large gloomy hall, hung with black, and lighted with a 
few glimmering tapers. All around nothing was to be seen but cof- 

nfhiv f T .^^"T''^ ""^ ^^'^ ^^ ^^'^ '^"^^^^^ ^^'""en upon them, and 
ottier irightful objects, and instruments of execution 

^^hile the company beheld all these preparations with silent 
f;? w^^'T' a sxidden, a number of men burst into the room, clothed 
n black, withdrawn swords and flaming torches, and afer they 

iiwhP ^'''' '"''" T'''^''^ '^'. ^"''^'' ^ ""'^''^Se from the emperor, 
gave the company leave to retire. f ^ ? 

His death had been predicted by the astrologers. This circum- 
stance gave him the most tormenting inquietude. His jealou ™s 
increasing with a sense of his guilt, he was afraid by day and by 
night ; and m proportion to his fears, he became more cruel His 
stern air and fiery visage, directed and added poignancy to the t.or- 

S i'^ ^"1 '"T^'f- ^^'' ^""'^y ^" ^^^^*^^ he was accustomed to 
walk, he ordered to be set round with a pellucid stone, which served 

behind""' Ri.nl''^'/ '^Ti f •''""' '^ '^ '"'^ '^ approached him from 
u^r r^,"^ j'^^P^^^" ""^^ h'^ precautions were unavailing. 
1 he fall of Domitian," says Heeren, "confirms the result of uni- 
veisal experience, that a tyrant has little to fear from the people, 
bu so much the more from individuals, whose throats are in dan- 
ger. 

His wife Domitia, having accidently discovered that her name 

concTtPd ' ^''' '' *"'" "'^^^ ^'' '""''^^'^ ^« P^^t to death t om-e 
enlrnf ^""^"^'^^ ^o secure her safety by the destruction of the 
emperor. Engaging some of the officers of his household, and others 

hP JnTf'^f '^ '^'' P^T''^^^^ ^^^^' '^ '''''' i"^^ her plan, she had 
the good fortune soon to learn, that he was dispatched at rnidniaht, 



24 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

in one of the most secret recesses of his palace, whither he had re- 
tired to rest. 

The twelve Caesars, as they have been denominated m 
history, ended with Domitian. In this number, however, 
Julius Cffisar is included, although Augustus was the first 
emperor strictly so called, and Nero was the last emperor of 
the Augustan family. 

16. Nerva was elected emperor by the senate, upon the 
death of Domitian, 96 A. C. He was the first Roman 
emperor of foreign extraction, (being a native of Crete), and 
chosen on account of his virtues. His advanced age and the 
clemency of his disposition, with perhaps a w^ant of energy, 
unfitted him to stem the torrent of corruption, and to cure 
the disorders of the empire. He however, adopted the ex- 
cellent Trajan as his successor, and thus rendered a service 
to mankind which his administration otherwise could never 
have accompUshed. He died 98 A. C. in the seventy-se- 
cond year of his age. Having reigned sixteen months. 

§ During his short reign, Nerva made several good laws and regu- 
lations, and in every respect conducted himself like an indulgent fa- 
ther to his people. No statues would he permit to be erected to 
his memory, and he converted into money, such of Domitian's ag 
had been spared by the seuEite. He sold many rich robes, and 
much of the splendid furniture of the palace, and retrenched seve- 
ral unreasonable expenses at court, yet he was not at all avaricious 
of money. 

The following is a striking instance of his lenity. He had so- 
lemnly sworn that no senator of Rome should be put to death by 
his command, during his reign, from any cause whatever. 

Tliis oath he observed witli such sanctity, that when two sena- 
tors had conspired his death, he sent for them, and carried them 
with him to the public theatre. There presenting each a dagger, 
he desired them to strike, as he was determined not to ward off the 
blow. 

17. Trajan, now in the possession of the throne, 98 A. C. 
was a native of Seville in Spain. He proved to be one of 
Rome's best sovereigns, splendid, warlike, munificent, cour- 
teous, and modest. The few vices he possessed were scarcely 
noticed amidst the blaze of his virtues, and the fame of his 
exploits. This, perhaps, is an instance of human infirmity 
in the estimation of character, since no vice should pass un- 
condemned. It is a matter of deep regret, that his equity, 
so visible in other respects, should be implicated by his con- 
duct towards the Christians, whom he suffered to be mo- 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 25 

iested . The third great persecution of them took place during 
his reign. 

The boundaries of the empire were greatly enlarged by 
the victories of Trajan, in Dacia and the East. They never 
were so extensive, either before or after his time. The em- 
pire, however, was not improved by these conquests ; it soon 
jost them, for the conquered countries immediately re-appeared 
in arms, and at lengtli effected their independence. 

Learning and learned men were signally encouraged by the 
emperor's liberality. His public Avorks are also much cele- 
brated. By his direction, the column still to be seen un- 
der the name of Trajan's column, was erected. It is one of 
the most remarkable monuments of ancient Rome. He died 
after a reign of nineteen years, at the age of sixty-three, 
118 A. C. 

§ It was a characteristic of Trajan, that he so little feared his 
enemies, that he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had any. 
Being once told that his favorite. Sura, was false to him ; Trajan, 
to show how much he relied upon his fidelity, went in his ordinary 
manner to sup with him. There he commanded Sura's surgeon to 
be brought, whom he ordered to take off the hair about his eye- 
brows. He then made the barber shave his beard, after which, he 
went unconcerned into the bath as usual. The next day, when 
Sura's accusers were renewing their complaints ; Trajan informed 
them how he had spent the night, remarking, that "if Sura, had any 
designs against his life, he had then the fairest opportunity." 

The first war in which the emperor was engaged, was with the 
Dacians, who, in the reign of Domitian, had committed numerous 
ravages upon the provinces. Trajan, suddenly appearing in arms 
on the frontiers of their country, awed them at once into a treaty of 
peace. As, however, this was soon after violated, he entered the 
hostile territory, and obtained a complete victory, though with a 
prodigious slaughter of his troops; and Dacia became a Roman 
province. At his return to Rome he entered the city in triumph ; 
and the rejoicings for his victories lasted for the space of one hundred 
and twenty days. 

Trajan aferwards turned his arms eastward and speedily reduced 
Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Assyria, and took Ctesiphon, the capi- 
tal of the Parthian empire. At length, sailing down the Persian 
gulph, he entered the Indian ocean, conquering even the Indies ; 
part of which he annexed to the Roman empire. This enterprise, 
which, at one time, he intended to pursue to the confines of the 
earth, he was obliged to relinquish on account of the inconveniences 
of increasing age. 

Preparing to return to his capital in a style of unparalleled mag- 
nificence, he was unable from infirmity to reach home ; and he died 

3 



26 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

in the city of Seleucia, having refused to nominate a successor, lest 
hf* should adopt a person that was unworthy. , , i • 

Itmay serve to show how highly Trajan was esteemed by his 
subjects, that it was the practice, during two hundred years in 
bSg his successors, to wish them " the fortune of Augustus, and 
the goodness of Trajan." ^, 

18 Adrian succeeded Tiaian 118 years A. C. llie 
wife of Trajan forged a will in the emperor's name, declar- 
ing Adrian his successor. This designation was supported 
by the army, and Adrian ventured to assume the govern- 
ment This emperor was a nephew of Trajan, and m most 
respects worthy of being his successor. He chose to cultivate 
rather the arts of peace than war, and judging that the limits 
of the empire were too extensive, he abandoned all the con- 
quests of Trajan, and bounded the eastern provinces by the 
liver Euphrates. He was, however, remarkably expert in 
mihtary discipline. . • , • 

Durino- an expedition of thirteen years, he visited m per- 
son all the provinces of his empire, and dispensed wherever 
he went the blessings of peace, justice, and order. In Ins ca- 
pacity as a sovereign, he rendered important services to his 
subjects— in private life, however, it is said that his virtues 
were mino-led with an alloy of vices, arising chiefly from ir- 
resolution.'' He indulged in vanity, envy, and detraction, in a 
deo-ree which was too manifest to be palliated in a person ol 
his^'exahed station. His virtues, however, were predominant, 
and Rome had few better emperors. His general knowledge, 
and his taste in the arts, were highly honourable m a sovereign. 
He died in the seventy-second year of his age, A. C. 138. 

S Among his exploits, it is known that when he came to Britain 
he built a wall of wood and earth, between the modern towns of 
Carlisle and Newcastle, eighty miles in length, to protect the Britons 
from the incursions of the Caledonians. In a war with the Jews, 
he killed in battle five hundred and eighty thousand of that people 
who had become rebellious, and buiU a city on the rums of Jerusa- 
lem which he called Aelia Capitolina. In performing his long 
marches with his army, Adrian generally travelled on foot, and went 
without any covering on his head. 

His character was in many respects extraordinary, and none ol 
the Roman emperors excelled him in variety of endowments He was 
highly skilful in all the exercises both of body and mind. He was an 
author, orator, mathematician, musician and painter. His memory 
was so retentive, that he recollected every incident of his life, and 
Jie knew all the soldiers of his army by name. 
He was the first emperor who wore a long beard, a fashion which 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 27 

he adopted to hide the warts on his face. His successor followed 
his example for the sake of ornament. 

Though Adrian aimed at universal reputation, he strictly attended 
to the duties of his station. Through his cares he began to fail in 
health and strength, and adopting for his successor Titus Antoninus, 
he sought the repose which he needed. His bodily infirmities how- 
ever, daily increased, and his pain becoming nearly insupportable, 
he vehemently desired death. Antoninus with difficulty persuaded 
liim to sustain life, though the emperor frequently cried out in his 
agonies, " How miserable a thing is it to seek death, and not to find 
it." Alas ! how pointed is the moral, that no station, however ex- 
alted, can exempt one from the infirmities of life and the sting of 
death. As he was expiring, the emperor repeated the following 
lines, as translated into English. 

O fleeting spirit, wand'ring fire, 

That long has warmed my tender breast, 
Wilt thou no more my frame inspire 1 

No more a pleasing cheerful guest '? 
Whither, ah ! whither art thou Hying *? 

To what dark, undiscovered shore 1 
Thou seemest all trembling, shivering, dying. 

And wit and humour are no more. 

His reign was a prosperous one of twenty-two years. He died 139 
A. C. aged seventy-two. 

19. Titus Aotoninus, suriiamed Pius, having been adopt- 
ed by Adrian, succeeded to the empire 138 A. C. His vir- 
tues were an ornament to human nature, and conferred innu- 
merable blessings on mankind. He preferred peace to con- 
quest, and yet whenever war became necessary, he carried 
it on with vigour and success. He was conspicuous for jus- 
tice and clemency, and his love of the religion of his country. 

His reign was marked by few events, as the reigns of 
peaceable monarchs usually are. The most remarkable for- 
eign occurrences were the enlargement of the province of 
Britain by the conquests of Urbicus, and the suppression of 
some forminable rebellions in Germany, Dacia, and the East. 
He died at the age of seventy-four, having reigned twenty- 
two years. A. C. 161. 

§ Such was the munificence of Antoninus, that in cases of famine 
or inundation, he supplied with his own money the wants of the 
sufferers. Such were his humanity and love of peace, that when 
told of conquering heroes, he said with Scipio, that " he preferred 
the life and preservation of one subject to the death of an hundred 
enemies !" His regard of the christians was extraordinary for a 
heathen emperor. He declared that " if any should proceed to dis- 
turb them on account of their religion, such should undergo the 
same punishment which was intended against the accused." A de- 



28 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

gree of persecution nevertheless took place, contrary to the princi- 
ples of the emperor. 

He was a distinguished rewarder of learned men, whom he invi- 
ted from all parts of the world, and raised to wealth and honour. 
Among the rest, he sent for Apollonius tiie famous stoic philosopher, 
to instruct his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius, whom he had previous- 
ly married to his daughter. 

Apollonius being arrived at Rome, the emperor desired his atten- 
dance : but the philosopher arrogantly answered that it was the 
scholar's duty to wait upon the master, and not the master's to wait 
upon the scholar. To this reply, Antoninus only returned with a 
smile, " that it was surprising how Apollonius, who made no ditficul- 
ty in coming from Greece to Rome, should think it so hard to M^alk 
from one part of Rome to the other," and immediately sent Marcus 
Aurelius to him. 

In the midst of his labours in rendering his subjects happy, he was 
seized with a lingering illness, which terminated in death in the 
seventy-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign. 

20. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the adopted son of Pius, 
now came to the throne, 161 A. C. His name before was 
Annius Verus, and he, together with Lucius Yerus, his bro- 
ther, had been designated by Adrian to succeed to the govern- 
ment, whenever Antoninus Pius should decease. Pius con- 
iirmed the adoption of Marcus, without once naming Lucius 
Verus. Marcus, however, upon assuming the empire, admit- 
ted his brother as a partner in the administration. 

They were perfectly opposite in character ; Marcus Aurelius 
being as much distinguished for his energy and virtue, as 
Verus was for imbecihty, meanness, and vice. Aurelius was 
in every respect equal to his predecessor, and was even more 
conspicuous for his attachment to philosophy. This, as the 
stoics professed it, he has admirably taught and illustrated in 
his Meditations. 

In the wars which were carried on duruig this joint reign, 
the worthless Verus brought disgrace upon the Roman name, 
wherever he commanded. The Parthians, however, were 
repulsed by the legions of the empire, and a rebellion of the 
Germans was subdued. 

After the death of Verus, which happily soon took place, 
Aurelius directed all his energies for the improvement and 
happiness of his empire. For purposes of beneficence he 
visited the remotest corners of the Roman world. He died 
at length in Pannonia, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and 
nineteenth of his reign, A. C. 180. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 29 

It was an infelicity of the otherwise admirable reign of 
Aurehus, that the christians at one time were violently perse- 
cuted. The fanatical Pagan priests were, however, the im- 
mediate instruments in this persecution, inasmuch as they 
ascribed to the christians the various calamities which the 
empire endured, under the excesses of Verus, the attacks of 
the barbarians, and the devastations occasioned by earth- 
quakes, famines, pestilences, and inundations. 

§ Aureliiis loved retirement and philosophical contemplation, and 
improved for mental cultivation and enjoyment, all the leisure he 
could command. That, however, was far less than his wishes dic- 
tated. The disturbances in the empire called him frequently into 
the field, and until the death of his colleague, he sutfered no small 
inquietude on his account. He was, however, successful in his mili- 
tary excursions. 

One deliverance which he and his army experienced on a certain 
occasion, borders on the miraculous. In a contest with the barba- 
rians beyond the Danube, the Roman legions unexpectedly, through 
the artifice of the enemy, found themselves inclosed in a place where 
they could neither fight, nor retreat. In this situation they became 
at length totally disheartened, from their long continued fatigue, the 
excessive heat of the place, and their violent thirst. 

In these suffering circumstances, while sorrow and despair were 
depicted on every brow, Aurelius ran through the ranks, and used 
every effort to rekindle their hopes and courage. But all was in 
vain. At this crisis, and just as the barbarians were ready to follow 
them, we are told that the solemn prayers of a christian legion^ 
then serving among them, produced such a shower of rain as instant- 
ly revived the fainting army. From the same clouds, was discharged 
such a terrible storm of hail with thunder against the enemy, as dis- 
mayed them, and made them an easy prey to the refreshed and in- 
spirited Romans. 

These circumstances are related by pagan as well as Christian 
writers, only with this difference, that the latter ascribe the victory 
to their own prayers, the former to the prayers of their emperor. 
Aurelius, however, it seems, was favourably impressed in regard to 
the christians, since he immediately relaxed the persecution against 
them. 

Some other particulars will be related respecting Aurelius, in our 
biographical sketches. 

Upon the death of Aurelius the empire evidently decHned. 
The emperors who succeeded were generally a weak or 
vicious race. The colossaJ size of the empire caused it to 
sink by its own weight. Enemies on its borders oppressed 
it from without, and tumults and factions paralized it within ; 
patriotism and genius were becoming rare, and corruption 
pervaded all orders of the community. 



30 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD I. 

At the period of Trajan's death, the empire comprehend- 
ed the greater part of Britain, all Spain, France, the Ne- 
therlands, Italy, part of Germany, Egypt, Barbary, Bile- 
dulgerid, Turkey in Emope and in Asia, and Persia. At 
the demise of Aurelias, it was a little diminished in size, but 
still too large to be preserved entire, amidst the profligacy of 
the times. 

21. Commodus, the son of AureUus, had been nominated 
by his father to succeed him, and he accordingly now mounted 
the tlii-one, 180 A. C. He had nothing but the merits of his 
father to commend him to the Roman people. He inherited 
the disposition of his infamous mother, Faustina, rather than 
of Aurelius. The change from the reign of the father to 
the son was indeed a most gloomy one. It is a singular fact, 
that the most detestable of all the emperors was the son of 
the best. 

Commodus was given to low vices and mean pursuits--- 
was fond of the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the 
hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers and gla- 
diators. His administration of the government was entirely 
weak, contemptible, and tyrannical. He perished by assas- 
sination, in the thirty-second year of his age, and the thir- 
teenth year of his reign, 193 A. C. 

§ It had been happy for himself and mankind, had Commodus cul- 
tivated his mind, as he did his body, (for he was wonderfully expert 
in all corporeal exercises :) but he was averse to every rational and 
hberal pursuit. He spent the day in feasting, and the night in the 
vilest debaucheries. 

His cruelty combined with avarice and levity, cannot be too strong- 
ly held up for the detestation of mankind. If any person desired 
to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining with Commodus for a 
sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in such a manner 
as he chose. He commanded a person to be thrown among wild 
beasts, for reading the life of Caligula in Suetonius. He would 
sometimes, in a frolic, cut off men's noses, under a pretence of shav- 
ing their beards ; yet he was himself so jealous of mankind, that he 
was obliged to be his own barber ; or as some have said, he used to 
burn his beard, after the example of Dionysius, the tyrant. 

In imitating Hercules with his club and lion's skin, he would fu- 
riously fall upon a company of beggars in the streets, and beat them 
to death ; having first dressed them up like giants and monsters, and 
giving them sponges to tlirow at him, instead of stones. 

In such a manner did this wretch spend his time, while the trou- 
bles of his empire were daily increasing, and its strength and terri- 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 31 

tories were diminishing by frequent warfares on the frontiers. He 
narrowly escaped destruction several times, from his personal exas- 
perated foes. But he was destined at length justly to fall. His 
favourite concubine, Marcia, who accidentally discovered the em- 
peror's determination to put her to death, with other conspirators, 
found the means of destroying him, partly by poison and partly by 
strangling. 

22. Pertinax, who had been fixed upon by the conspirators 
as the successor of Comniodus, was joyfully proclaimed by 
the prffitorian guards, 193 A. C. Originally he was the son 
of an enfranchised slave, but rose to esteem by his virtues 
and military talents. Applying himself to the correction of 
abuses with too unsparing and rash a hand, he alienated the 
affections of a corrupted people, and was deposed and mur- 
dered by the same guards that had placed him on the throne, 
after a reign of only three months, aged sixty-eight years. 
The loss W'bich the empire felt in the death of such a man 
is greater than can be well conceived. 

23. Didius Julianus, next succeeded to the empire 193 A. 
C, having purchased it of the prastorian guards, who put it 
up to the highest bidder. At the same time, several com- 
manders in the distant provinces, were each proclaimed by 
their respective forces. These, how^ever. lost their lives ex- 
cept Septimius Severus, w^io marched to Rome and seized 
the government. Didius was hereupon deposed and put to 
death by the senate in the fifth month of his reign. 

§ Didius presents a striking instance of the cupidity of the hu- 
man mind for power, and of the infelicities that attend it. He was 
a man of consular rank, and the richest citizen of Rome. Hearing 
the singular proclamation of the prsBtorian guards, and charmed 
with the prospect of unbounded dominion, he hastened to the camp, 
and bid the largest price for the empire. He gave to each soldier 
(10,000 in number) the sum of 6250 drachmas, which amounts to 
nearly 9,000,000 dollars, in the whole. 

From this period he was exposed to disappointment, mortifica- 
tion, insult, and danger. Indulging his ease and his avaricious dis- 
position, he soon offended those who made him emperor. He was 
contemptuously treated at home, while two or more generals in the 
provinces abroad, disclaimed his authority. Upon the approach of 
Severus, he could raise no forces to meet him. He was nearly dis- 
tracted by the multiplicity of counsels, and finally his perplexity 
and distress became extreme and overwhelming. 

The senate, at this crisis, perceiving his timidity and irresolution, 
resolved to abandon him, and to proclaim Severus. His death then 
was no longer problematical ; and though he persisted that he had 



32 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

a right to enjoy his purchase for the natural period of his life, as he 
had been guilty of no crime, all did not avail. The executioners, 
obliging him to stretch his neck forward according to custom, im- 
mediately struck off his head. 

24. Septimius Severus was now at the head of the Roman 
world, 193 A. C. He was an African by birth, and possessed 
a restless activity with an unbounded share of ambition. 
He was endowed with a hardihood and decision of character, 
which fitted him for any enterprise. His military talents 
were conspicuous, and the credit of the Roman arms was 
sustained during his reign. In his administration of govern- 
ment he was generally wise and equitable, though highly 
despotic. 

In his expedition into England, he built a stone wall ex- 
tending from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, nearly on 
a parallel with that of Adrian. Severus died at York in 
England, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after a reign of 
eighteen years, 211 A. C. He left the empire to his two 
sons Caracalla and Geta, whose dispositions gave the em- 
peror the greatest inquietude. 

§ The first act of Severus, even before he entered Rome, was to 
degrade the praetorian soldiers, whose irregularity had already be- 
come too conspicuous. These he stript of their title, and banished 
one hundred miles from the city. He soon after engaged in a terri- 
ble conflict with Niger, his competitor in the East, whom he finally 
conquered on the plains of Issus. Albinus also, his other competi- 
tor, who commanded in Britain, was soon after conquered in battle, 
in one of the severest engagements recorded in the Roman history. 
It was fought in Gaul, and lasted from morning till night, without 
any apparent advantage on either side. It was decided at length by 
a body of reserve, in favour of Severus. 

His activity and love of conquest led him into the East, where he 
signalised his arms, and whence he returned in triumph to Rome. 
Having escaped a conspiracy formed by Plautian, to whom he had 
committed his domestic policy, he spent a considerable time in visit- 
ing the cities of Italy ; and finally in affording protection to all parts 
of his empire, he made an expedition into Britain. The wall which 
he here built was eight feet broad and twelve feet high, planted with 
towers at a mile's distance from each other, and communicating by 
pipes of brass in the m all, which conveyed intelligence from one 
garrison to another with incredible dispatch. 

Having given peace to the island, and secured it against the irrup- 
tions of the Caledonians, he began to feel the effects of age and 
fatigue ; but he was more broken down by the irreclaimable life of 
Caracalla. Calling for the urn in which his ashes were to be en- 
closed, he moralized on his melancholy condition in the following 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 33 

remark. " Little urn," said he, " thou shalt now contain what the 
world could not contain." It is recorded that he hastened his death 
by purposely loading his stomach with food, in his weak state. 

25. Caracalla and Geta were now established on the 
throne, 211 A. C Their association in the empire created 
a mutual enmity, and indeed they were very unlike in native 
character. Caracalla was fierce and cruel to an extreme 
degree. Geta was mild and merciful. The former resolv- 
ing to reign alone, seized an opportunity to murder Geta m 
the arms of his mother. During his reign of six years, he 
committed a continued series of atrocities. He was taken off 
by assassination, 217 A. C. 

Within this short period the empire was every day declin- 
ing ; the soldiers were entirely masters of every election ; 
and both discipline in the army, and subordination in the 
State, were almost destroyed. 

§ The worst qualities of the "worst emperors centered in this impe- 
rial wretch. He slew his friend Laetius, his own wife Plautina, and 
Papinian, the renowned civilian, for refusing to write in vindication 
of his cruelty — that upright man answering the emperor's request 
by observing, " that it was much easier to commit a parricide than 
to defend it." 

He commanded all the governors to be slain, whom his brother 
had appointed, and destroyed not less than 2000 of his adherents. 
Upon a certain occasion, he ordered his soldiers to fall upon a crowd- 
ed audience in the tlieatre, only for discountenancing a charioteer, 
whom he happened to favour. 

As might be expected, he was harrassed with awful terrors. He 
feared the day of his death, and that day was fast approaching. One 
Martial, a centurion of the guards, was prevailed upon by a higher 
officer, Macrinus, to give the emperor his death-wound, on a con- 
venient occasion, which was readily seized, and thus the world was 
freed from a monster, who was not only infinitely unfit to govern 
an empire, but was unworthy to live. 

26. Macrinus, who instigated Caracalla's death, was pro- 
claimed emperor, 217 A. C. Little is recorded respecting 
him. He was a person of obscure birth, and was deemed 
severe by the soldiery, who had now become so licentious, 
that they could scarcely bear the gentlest corrections. His 
attempts at discipline, together with the artifices of the grand- 
mother of Heliogabalus, alienated from him the affections of 
the army, and he lost his life in the struggle to retain his 
power, after a reign of only fourteen months, 218 A. C. 

37. Hehogabalus was, by the army, raised to the throne 



34 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

when only fourteen years of age. The appointment of the 
army, as usual, influenced the decisions of the senate and 
citizens of Rome. This emperor proved to be another mon- 
ster of wickedness of the same rank with Nero, Commodus, 
and Caracalla. He lived to be only eighteen years of age, 
and yet lived long enough to hasten the fall of the empire, 
and to cover his name with eternal infamy. He was mur- 
dered in the fourth year of his reign, 222 A. C. 

§ Heliogabaliis was a natural son of Caracalla, a beautiful youtli, 
and loved by the army. Surrounded by flatterers, he soon yielded 
himself to their directions. His short life was but a tissue of effe- 
minacy, lust, folly, and extravagance. Some parts of his conduct 
were too indecent here to be described. 

In four years he married six wives, and divorced them all. He 
even assumed the dress and circumstances of a woman, and marri- 
ed one of his otRcers. After that he took for husband, one Hierocles, 
a slave, whom he suffered to beat him severely when guilty of any 
excess, all which he endured with great patience, saying, that it was 
the duty of a wife to submit to her husband. 

His prodigality and epicurism were boundless. His supper 
generally cost six thousand crowns, and often sixty thousand. He 
always dressed in cloth of gold and purple, enriched with precious 
stones, and never twice put on the same habit. Whenever he took 
horse, all the way between his apartment and the place of mount- 
ing, was covered with gold and silver dust strewn at his approach. 

His cruelties were equal to his licentiousness. He often invited 
the most common of the people to share in his feasts, and made 
them sit down on large bellows full of wind, which by sudden ex- 
haustion, threw the guests on the ground, and left them a prey to 
wild beasts. It is even said he endeavored to foretel the secrets of 
futurity, by inspecting the entrails of young men sacrificed ; and 
that he chose for this horrid purpose, the most beautiful youths 
throughout Italy. 

These are a few of the thousand excesses, follies, and atrocities of 
a mad and vicious boy, who, with the possession of unlimited rule, 
could do as he pleased. 

Being persuaded by his grandmother Maesa, he adopted Alexan- 
der his cousin-german as his successor ; but indignant that the af- 
fections of his army were bestowed upon the latter, he meditated 
revenge. His soldiers, however, perceiving his intention, took an 
opportunity to secure his person, and having dispatched him, treated 
his body with the greatest indignity, and consigned it at length to 
the Tyber. 

28. Alexander Severus was declared emperor 222 A. C. 
He was a prince of a kind, beneficent, and energetic charac- 
ter, and highly accomplished in learning and the arts. Every 
way calculated to make his subjects happy, he was greatly 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 35 

honoured and esteemed by them. He was conspicuous also for 
his military talents, and for the defeat of the Persians and 
others during his reign. He thus restored the empire to its 
former limits : but this exertion of its remaining strength, 
rather hastened than delayed its decline. 

He was cut off by a mutiny among his own soldiers in the 
fourteenth year of his reign, and the twenty -ninth of his age, 
at the instigation of Maximinus, his successor, 235 A. C. 

§ As a specimen of his virtuous character we may mention, that 
he ever loved good men, and severely reproved the lewd and infa- 
mous. His remark is in point, when he decided a contest between 
the christians and a company of cooks and vinters, about a piece of 
ground, which the one claimed as a place of public worship, and the 
other for exercising their respective trades. " It is better that God 
be worshiped there in any manner, than that the place should be put 
to the uses of drunkenness or debauchery." 

At the age of sixteen, when he ascended the throne, he had all 
the premature wisdom of age. His judgment was solid, and his 
talents were various. He was an excellent mathematician, geometri- 
cian, and musician. His taste in painting, sculpture and poetry was 
admirable. 

The first part of his reign was spent in a reformation of the abu- 
ses of his predecessors ; particularly in restoring tlie senators to their 
rank and influence. His first expedition, in the tenth year of his 
reign, was against the Parthians and Persians, whom he opposed 
with a powerful army. In one decisive engagement, he routed the 
Persians with great slaughter. About the same time, several of his 
generals obtained signal victories, over various nations then at war 
with the empire. 

His manner of living was like that of the meanest sentinel ; when- 
ever he dined or supped, he sat with his tent open, that all men might 
be witnesses of his abstemiousness. He was at one time instructed 
by the famous Origen in the principles of Christianity ; though it 
does not appear that he embraced that religion. 

29. Maximinus, who was accessary to the murder of Severus, 
ascended the throne upon this event, 235 A. C. He was the 
son of a Thracian shepherd, and is represented by historians 
as a man of gigantic stature and Herculean strength. He was 
full eight feet in height, and perfectly symmetrical in form. 

He rose by degrees into power ; but though meritorious 
before his elevation, as a sovereign he was brutal and ferocious. 
He warred with the Germans, and wasted their country to 
the extent of four hundred and fifty miles, converting it al- 
most into a desert. His cruelties soon aroused the Roman 
people against him, and he was finally assassinated by his 
own soldiers in his tent, after a reign of three years, 238 A. C. 



36 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD I. 

During the period of his power, the two Gordians, father 
and son were proclaimed emperors, but these soon perished. 
The senate then proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus, w^ho 
survived Maximinus. These measures were dictated by the 
anxiety which the Romans felt, to free themselves from that 
tyrant. 

§ Maximinus is said to have delighted in acts of the greatest bar- 
barity, and no less than four hundred persons lost their lives, on the 
false suspicion of a conspiracy against his hfe. He caused to be re- 
moved from his sight or assassinated, many noble Romans, who, as 
he suspected, despised him, on account of his mean origin. 

When he was apprised of the acts of the senate, appointing 
others to the supreme power, he raved and howled like a wqld beast, 
and almost destroyed himself by beating his head against the walls 
of his palace. His fury, however, at length gave way to a spirit 
of revenge ; but his bloody machinations Avere soon stopped. His 
guards having been corrupted, murdered him while sleeping in his 
tent, as he was too formidable an object to be attacked while awake. 

Owing to his size, his strength was prodigious. He alone could 
draw a full loaded wagon. With a blow of his fist he could break 
the teeth in a horse's mouth, and with a kick of his foot could break 
its thigh. His voracity was proportioned to his size and strength. 
He generally ate forty pounds of flesh every day, and drank six 
gallons of wine. 

The Praetorian soldiers who were enemies to Pupienus and 
Balbinus, soon embraced an opportimity of despatching them 
ix)th, and accidentally meeting Gordian, grandson to one of 
ihe former Gordians, they proclaimed him emperor. The 
senate and people had been too long controlled by the army, 
on the subject of nominating the emperors, to withhold their 
consent in the present instance. 

30. Gordian accordingly assumed the empire 238 years 
A. C. He was no more than sixteen years old at this time, 
and was a prince of very considerable merit. The Goths. 
and also the Persians, who had invaded the confines of the 
empire on different sides, were repulsed by his arms. 

Towards the latter part of his reign, Philip, an Arabian. 
was chosen pratorian praefect, under Avhose administration the 
|:>eople began to be discontented. This state of things Phihp 
fostered, till the odium against the emperor so far increased, 
that the preefect ventured to order his execution, with a 
view to his own preferment, an object which he accomplish- 
ed. Gordian's reign was a period of nearly six years. 

§ Gordian was a man so fond of learning, that he had collected 
62,000 books in his private library. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 37 

31. Philip having acquired the empire 244 A. C, by the 
murder of his benefactor, reigned five years, and then was 
himseh' assassinated, while marching against Decius. 

§ Philip was an Arabian by birth, and received, in the manner of 
his death, a righteous retribution, on account of his own nefarious 
conduct in gaining the sceptre. 

32. Decius, whom Philip had appointed to command a 
revolted army, had been proclaimed before the emperor's 
death. Upon that event he began to assume the functions of 
government 249 A. C. His activity and wisdom would have 
stayed the progress of decay in the empire, if any human 
means cotdd effect that object. But the tendency to this 
state of things was irretrievable and fatal. 

The profligacy and luxury of the times, the disputes be- 
tween the Pagans and Christians, and the begin nmg irrup- 
tions of the barbarous nations from without, were enfeebhng 
the empire beyond remedy. 

Decius reigned but two years and six months, having been 
cut off, in a war with the Goths, by the treachery of Gallus, 
his general. 

33. Gallus, raised to the throne 251 A. C, by that part of 
the army which survived a defeat he had himself occasioned, 
reigned but two years and four months. He was a vicious 
sovereign, and during his reign the empire suffered incalcula- 
ble misery. He perished in a civil war, in which Aemilianus, 
his general, opposed him, and was victorious. 

§ It was in the time of Gallus, that a dreadful pestilence spread 
over the earth, threatening almost to depopulate it. 

34. Valerian, a commander of one of the armies of the em- 
pire, succeeded to the throne 254 A. C, contrary to the ex- 
pectations of Aemilianus. In a war with the Persians, having 
been taken prisoner, he suffered unheard of hardships and in- 
sult, and at length was put to death in the most cruel manner. 

§ Sapor, the Persian king, happened to secure the person of Vale- 
rian. We are told that he always used the emperor as a footstool 
for mounting his horse, and that he often observed, "such an attitude 
was the best statue that could be erected in honour of his victory." 

The manner of Valerian's death is almost too horrid to be men- 
tioned. His eyes were first plucked out, and afterwards he was flay- 
ed alive, when his skin was dyed red, and exposed in a temple. He 
was seven years a prisoner. 

35. Gallienus. son of Valerian, was chosen emperor 260 

4 



38 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

A. C. He promised to avenge the insults and death of his 
father ; but after his elevation, he thought only of his own 
base pleasures, while the empire Avas attacked without, and 
distracted within. Thirty pretenders were at one time con- 
tending for the dominion of the state. Gallienus suffered a 
violent death. 

36. Upon the death of Gallienus, Flavins Claudius was 
invested with the purple, 268 A. C, agreeably to the wishes 
of the army, and the whole Roman people. He was an ac- 
tive, wise, and good prince; but unhappily his reign was 
short, being less than two years. He died a natural death, 
which was more frequently the lot of the virtuous, than of the 
profligate emperors. 

§ Claudius opposed with success the Goths, Heruli, &c. who had 
invaded the empire on the north, in one instance destroying an army 
of 300,000 men ; and he likewise overthrew the Germans, who had 
reared the standard of revolt. His energy stayed, for a short time, 
the decline of the empire. 

37. The army made choice of Aurelian as emperor, 270 
A. C. His parentage was obscure, but he was esteemed the 
most valiant commander of his age. After his elevation, his 
time was passed in repressing the irruptions of the barbarians, 
and particularly in carrying on a war with Zenobia, a prin- 
cess of Palmyra, commonly styled the Q,ueen of the East, 
whom he conquered, and brought captive to Rome. With 
great courage and military talents, he was cruel. He fell in 
a conspiracy which was raised against him by some of his 
subjects. 

§ His strength was said to be so great, that in one single engage- 
ment, he killed 40 of the enemy with his own hand, and above 900 
at ditTerent times. The degeneracy of his people seemed almost to 
justify his severities, in punishing offenders ; but it is said that when 
he was about to sign certain edicts against the christians, who were 
an inoffensive people, he was deterred from the act, by a thunder-bolt, 
which fell so near his person, that his escape was thought to be mi- 
raculous. 

38. Several months elapsed before a new emperor was 
elected. At leugth Tacitus was prevailed upon to take the 
reins of government, 275 A. C. He was a man of great me- 
rit, but unfortunately to the empire, he died of a fever after a 
reign of only six months, at the age of 75. 

39. His successor was Probus, though a minority in the 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 39 

army chose Florian, a brother of Tacitus. Florian enjoyed 
this distinction but two months ; for upon the estabhshment 
of Probus in the empire, he sought a vokintary death. 

Probus possessed uncommon activity, courage, and integri- 
ty, and was constantly engaged in war with the barbarians, 
and in suppressing the numerous factions wdiich arose in his 
dominions. Offending his soldiers by obliging them to drain 
an extensive fen in Sirmium, his native place, he was slain 
in a conspiracy which they had formed against him, 282 
A. C. 

§ Probus was born of noble parentage, and was early distinguish- 
ed by his excellent qualities. He was frequently tlie first man that, 
in besieging towns, scaled the walls, or that burst into the enemy's 
camp. 

His energy and virtue, great as they were, could scarcely present 
a sufficient barrier to the tide of calamities that rushed upon the em- 
pire. In a war, however, with the Germans in Gaul, he slew 400,000 
men ; and at various times repulsed many other enemies, particular- 
ly the Sarmatians, Gotlis and Blemii. Tbe last were a people who 
had left the forests of Ethiopia, and possessed themselves of Arabia 
and Jiidea. 

Among those of his subjects who had rebelled against him, was 
Bonosus, who was remarkable as given to intoxication. The rebel 
being overcome, hanged himself in despair. Probus seeing him im- 
mediately after this event, pointed to his body, and with great hu- 
mour observed, " There hangs, not a man, but a bottle." 

40. Cams, praetorian prsefect to the deceased emperor, was 
chosen by the army to succeed him 282 A. C. He associated 
with him in command, his two sons, Carinus and Numerian. 
Carus, and his son Numerian, w^ere worthy of the empire, 
but Carinus was given to vice. Their reign, however, was 
only of two years' continuance. Carus was smitten by a 
flash of hghtning, in his tent, and his sons were killed soon 
after — Numerian by an act of treachery, Carinus in a con- 
test with Diocletian, who had been chosen emperor. 

§ Numerian was so affected by the death of his father, that through 
excess of weeping, he brought on a disorder in his eyes, in conse- 
quence of which he was obliged to be carried in a close litter. In 
this situation he was murdered by his ambitious father-in-law, Aper, 
who was soon cut off by the hand of Diocletian. 

41. Diocletian began his reign in 284 A. C, and two years 
afterwards, associated with himself in the empire his general 
Maximian. Under their united auspices, the enemies of 
Rome were frequently repulsed. At the expiration of about 



40 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

eight years from tliat time, they took two colleagues, Galeriu? 
and ConslaiUius ; and bestowed ujDori each the title of Csesar, 

This state of things was novel. There was a four fold 
division of the government, with two emperors and two Cse- 
sars at its head, each having a nominal supremacy. Diocle- 
tian, however, was the master spirit that moved and controlled 
the whole. In this state, the government was administered 
a few years, when strange to relate the two emperors resigned 
their authority into the hands of the two Caesars, and retired 
into private life 304 A. C. 

Diocletian seems to have been sincere in his abdication, as 
he contentedly spent eight or nine years in rural privacy, and 
in cultivating his garden. Maximian soon began to be dis- 
contented, and made several attempts, but in vain, to lesume 
his former powers. His intrigues in Britain, where Constan- 
tine and his son Constantine resided, cost him his life. Di- 
ocletian died about 312 A. C. Maximian perished 310 A. C. 

§ Diocletian's parentage was mean. According to some he was the 
son of a scrivener; and according to others, of a slave. When 
elected to the empire he was forty years old, and owed his exalta- 
tion entirely to his merit, having passed through the various grada- 
tions of office, Avith sagacity, courage, and success. He chose Ga- 
lerius for his associate, giving him the title of CaBsar, with a view 
to secure his aid in opposing Narses, the king of Persia and Parthia, 
who had invaded Mesopotamia. In this enterprise they met with sig- 
nal success. Other enemies they subdued, except the northern na- 
tions, who, though repulsed and slaughtered in incredible numbers, 
were ever ready to embrace fresh opportunities of renewing hostilities. 

Diocletian, after his abdication of the empire, retired to his native 
country, Dalmatia, where he built a magnificent palace for his ac- 
commodation, near the town of Salona. Here he led a secure and 
quiet life. When some of his friends attempted to persuade him to 
resume the empire, he replied, " that if they knew his present hap- 
piness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it." 

Maximian was a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, and "svas adopt- 
ed by Diocletian as emperor, on account of his courage and 
fidelity. He defeated many enemies of his country, though his 
arms in Britain were unsuccessful. He adopted Constantius as 
Caesar, with a view to oppose the claims of Carausius, a principal 
commander in Britain, who had proclaimed himself emperor. 

42. When Diocletian and Maximian resigned their power, 
Constantius and Galerius were universally acknowledged 
304 A. C. Constantius governed the western parts of the 
empire. Galerius the eastern. They took in with them two 
partners, so that the empire was again under the guidance ot 



JUDEA, 41 

four persons, all invested with supreme authority; each having 
his distinct department. Se\eras and Maximian were the 
persons who were created Caesars. 

Constantius was a worthy character, Galerius was the re- 
verse. Constantius died at York, in Britain, 306 A. C, leav- 
ing his son Constantine as his successor. Galerius died four 
years afterw^ards of an extraordinary incurable disease. He 
had instigated Diocletian to persecute the christians. 

§ The western parts of tlie empire, or the dominion of Constantiu.s, 
consisted of Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with 
Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Germany. I'he eastern parts, or the do- 
minion of Galerius, consisted of Ulyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Ma- 
cedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the lesser Asia, together 
with Egypt, Syria, Judea, and all other oriental countries. 

An anecdote of the following kind is related of Constantius : — 
when he was persuaded to displace all the christian ofiicers of his 
household ; though he would not suffer the christians to be injured, 
he sent away in disgrace the few that complied, alleging, "that 
those who were not true to their God, would never be faithful to 
their prince." 

43. From the commencement to the close of the present 
period, persecutions of the christians more or less prevailed 
in the empire. At times, this unoffending class of the Ro- 
man subjects suffered in an extreme degree, from the edicts 
of the emperors. Historians ha\ e usually reckoned ten ge- 
neral persecutions of the christians. The names of the em- 
perors, under whom these persecutions were experienced, 
were the following : — Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Antoninus, 
Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Yalerian, Aurelian, and Dio- 
cletian. 

Most of these emperors persecuted the christians from 
malignity, and for the gratification of their cruel dispositions. 
Others did it, (though their conduct was indefensible,) from 
ignorance or prejudice, aided by the spirit of the age, and 
the common corruption of our nature. 

§ As this period is named from the persecutions which the pro- 
fessors of Christianity endured under the Roman emperors, it 
might seem proper here, to enter into some details on this subject. 
But a few of these will be included in an article on ecclesiastical 
history, to be embodied in the present volume. 

JUDEA. 

44. Judea 5 already under the sway of Rome, became a 
province of the empire 6 A. C. upon the banishment of Ar- 

4* 



42 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

chelaus, eldest son of Herod the Great. It was at the com- 
mencement of this period, that the birth of om- blessed Saviour 
Jesus Christ, as before noticed in the Roman histor}^, took 
place. Herod, in addition to all his other crimes shed the 
blood of the children of Bethlehem, in the hope that the in- 
fant Jesus would fall among them. He died miserably, soon 
after this transaction. 

§ In the reign of Herod, the sceptre, agreeably to ancient prophecy, 
having departed from Judah, by the control which the Romans had 
over the government, Jesus Christ Avas born in the year of the world 
4000. This has already been explained. We use, however, the 
vulgar era (4004) and assign the subsequent events according to that 
calculation. The mistake supposed to be made by the ancient chro- 
nologers has been too far sanctioned by Time, to be now remedied. 

His birth, which was announced by angels to the shepherds of 
Bethlehem, and which brought the eastern magi to worship him, 
exceedingly troubled Herod and the principal Jews, who became 
apprehensive of new wars and commotions. After finding out the 
place of his nativity, (viz. Bethlehem,) Herod determined on his 
death, by destroying all the children of that place and of its vicinity, 
'• from two years old and under." 

The providence of God, however, had removed the holy child be- 
yond his reach, inasmuch as his parents had fled with him, in the 
mean time, into Egypt. Herod's death soon occurring, they return- 
ed from Egypt, and dwelt in Nazareth, a city of Galilee. 

It is not our design to detail events here, which more properly be- 
long to ecclesiastical history. We would only say, that after a labo- 
rious and useful life, in the third year of his ministry, and in the 
thirty-third of his age, Jesus Christ expiated human transgression, 
by his death on the cross. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, the 
Roman governor, upon a false accusation brought against him by his 
own countrymen, the Jews. 

This glorious personage, who was " God manifest in the flesh," 
came into the world to save his people from their sins. In his hu- 
man nature he was lineally descended from David, though the fami- 
ly at the period of his birth, had become obscure and reduced to 
poverty. The effects of his appearance in the world were from the 
beginning, decisive. The holy system which he taught, considering 
the hostility of man to truth and piety, was diffused with great rapi- 
dity, under the ministry of the apostles. Reformation of moral 
character was its aim, object and result. Its effects have ever been 
great, and such they will be to the end of time. 

The civil affairs of the Jews, from the commencement of 
this era to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian, 
are too unimportant to be particularly described. A brief 
summary of them follows. 

§ Archelaus, under whom Judea became in form a Roman pro- 



JUDEA. 43 

vince, possessed only a tetrarchy, or the fourth part of the kingdom 
of Jewry. The rest of the country was divided into three more te- 
trarchies, which were those of Gahlee and Petraea possessed by Herod 
Antipatas ; that of Ituraea possessed by Philip, another son of Herod ; 
and that of Abilene possessed by Eysanias, who being afterwards 
banished into Gaul, had his province governed by Pontius Pilate. 

The successor of Archelaus was Herod H. nameql Antipas, who 
married his brother Philip's wife. This was the incestuous marriage 
on account of which John the Baptist reproved Herod, as mentioned 
m the New Testament. It was in the time of this Herod that our 
Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, occurred. 

Herod H. was succeeded by his son Herod the Great. Cahgula, 
the emperor of Rome, at that time invested him with the tetrarchy 
of his uncle Philip, and conferred on him the title of king. The 
other tetrarchies fell to his possession shortly afterwards. It was 
this Herod who caused the apostle James to be martyred, the apostle 
Peter to be imprisoned, and was himself smitten by an angel and 
devoured by worms. 

His son Agrippa Minor, succeeded, and was the last king of Jew- 
ry. It was before him, that the apostle Paul pleaded in defence of 
the gospel. 

45. During the reign of Agrippa Minor, Jerusalem was 
attacked by Titus (Vespasian) 70 A. D. The cause of this 
attack originated in the commotions and insurrections of the 
Jews, which were frequent about this time. This miserable 
people had suffered greatly, from the injustice and extortion 
practised upon them by the agents of the Roman govern- 
ment, and they consequently rose in rebellion. 

A signal vengeance fell upon their heads. Jerusalem was 
beseiged, and one million of people are said to have perished 
on the occasion. To such distress were the Jews reduced by 
famine, that mothers murdered their children for food. The 
people suffered greatly in other parts of Judea ; and though 
numbers remained in their native land, vast multitudes were 
dispersed over the face of the earth, on which they have ever 
since been wanderers. 

The reader of the Bible will see in these events, a re- 
markable fulfilment of the predictions of the ancient prophets 
and of our Saviour ; and he will also learn the evil and dan- 
ger of despising divine admonitions, and abusing religious 
privileges. The Jews are to this day a witness of the truth 
of scripture. 

§ Nero, who was emperor when the war with the Jews commenc- 
ed, entrusted the management of it to his general, Vespasian, who, 
accompanied by his son Titus, and a powerful army, arrived in Sy. 



44 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

ria 67 A. C. Vespasian soon after being chosen emperor, left orders 
with his son Titus, to continue the war, while he himself set out for 

Titus prosecuted the enterprise with diligence, and besieging 
Jerusalem, he took it within a few months, after an obstmate resist- 
ance on the part of its inhabitants. Twice, during the siege, Titus 
offered them very favourable terms, but so infatuated were they, that 
they not only refused his offers, but insulted at length his messenger, 
Flavins Josephus, in the most wanton and virulent manner. 

After this conduct, there remained no more mercy for the Jews. 
Titus caused the hands of those who had voluntarily sought shelter 
in the Roman camp, to be cut off, and sent them back to the city, 
and others he crucified in the sight of their countrymen. Famine, 
in the mean time, was performing its dreadful work within the 
walls. When Titus entered the city he gave it up to be plundered 
by the soldiers, and most of its inhabitants were put to the sword. 

In pursuance of this general order, the city M^as destroyed to its 
foundations, and even the ruins of the temple were demolished. 
Josephus says that the number of prisoners taken during the whole 
time of the war was ninety-seven thousand ; and the number killed 
in the city during the same period, amounted, as before stated, to 
one million. The Jews, who remained in the country, now paid 
tribute to the Romans, and were entirely subject to their laws. 

46. After this event Jerusalem was partially rebuilt, and in 
lis the inhabitants attempted again to rebel, but were speedily 
overcome. Adrian, the emperor, incensed at the conduct of 
this stubborn people, resolved to level their city with the earth, 
that is to say, those new buildings erected by the Jew^s, and 
to sow salt in the ground, on Avhich the place had stood. 
Thus was fulfilled a prophecy of our Saviour, who fore- 
told, that neither in the city nor in the temple, should one 
stone be left upon another. This therefore may be called 
the final destruction of Jerusalem, which took place 47 years 
after that of Titus. 

Adrian, however, soon built the city over anew, and called 
it Aelia Capitolina. It was a short hved change, for when 
the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, 
visited the city, she found it in a forlorn and ruinous state. 

PARTHIA, 

47. ThePARTHiAN empire at the beginning of this period, 
continued under the sway of the first branch of the Arsaci- 
dee. Phraates TV. then possessed the throne. Three sove- 
reigns succeeded him, when after short reigns, the second 
branch of the Arsacidee commenced. 



PERSIA. 45 

Verones I. was the last of the three sovereigns of the first blanch. 
He had been dispatched from Rome, where he was a host£ge, to 
reign over the Parthians, who had invited him to be their king ; 
but affecting the Roman dress and manners he incurred the dishke 
of his people, and was driven from the throne, to make room for 
Artabanus, of the royal family of Media. 

48. The second branch of the Arsacidae commenced IS 
years A. C under Artabanus III. It lasted nearly two 
hundred years under thirteen sovereigns. The Romans oc- 
casionally defeated the Parthians and made them tributary, 
but could never keep them long under the yoke. To the his- 
tory of the Parthian kings, we attach very little importance. 
The empire was at length restored to the Persians after they 
had been subject to the princes of Parthia for the space of 
four hundred and seventy-five years. 

§ Artabanus V, the last of this branch, having refused to give his 
daughter in marriage to the emperor Caracalla, the Romans entered 
Parthia and destroyed many cities ; but Macrinus, the successor of 
Caracalla, after a hard fought battle, concluded a peace with the 
Parthians. Artabanus was killed in battle by Artaxares, a Persian, 
who, revolting from the Parthians, restored the empire to Persia. 
The subsequent details belong to the Persian history. 

PERSIA. 

49. After the Persians had been subject to the Parthians 
during four hundred and seventy-five years, from the time 
that they passed from under the Macedonian yoke, Artax- 
ares, an ignoble but courageous Persian, excited a revolt 
among his countrymen, which terminated in the restoration 
of the Persian empire. 223 A. C. 

Artaxares having accomplished his design, and ascended 
the throne, assumed the pompous title of king of kings, and 
asserted his right to all the provinces of the ancient empire, 
which were now under the authority of the Romans. War 
therefore ensued between these two powers, and the Per- 
sians were terribly defeated in a single battle by Alexander 
Severus. They soon however regained the ground they had 
lost. 

Artaxares was followed by a series of princes, the most 
conspicuous of whom during this period was Sapores I. who 
was his immediate successor. The dynasty which Artaxares 
founded, is known in history under the name of Sassanidee, 
from Sassan, his father. 



46 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

§ Of Sapores, it is recorded that he conquered several cities in Syria 
and Mesopotamia, from the Romans, which however were recov- 
ered by the youngest Gordian ; that in 258 he captured Antioch, 
penetrating into Cappadocia, and besieging Caesara, which being 
taken through treacher}^, almost all the inhabitants were slain, and 
the city reduced to ashes. The next year the emperor Valerian 
having advanced into the east, was taken prisoner, and treated with 
the greatest cruelty, as has already been described. Sapores, after 
considerable reverse of fortune, having becomeodioustohis subjects 
for his cruelties, was assassinated by the Satraps. 

•Ho:misdas II. was the last prince of this period. He enjoyed a 
peaceful reign. After his death, the lords of the country seized his 
son and confined him in a tower, because he threatened to cause them 
all to be flayed alive, for not rising in token of obedience to him 
at a royal banquet, on a day when he returned from hunting. The 
queen being pregnant, the magi, by placing the crown upon her 
own person, affected to crown the prince, who, they persuaded 
themselves, Avould be born of her. 

CHINA. 

50. In the history of China, the fifth dynasty which com- 
menced about 200 years before the christian era, terminated 
during the present period, viz. in the year 221 A. C. It is 
called the dynasty of Han, and lasted four hundred and 
twenty-four years, under twenty-five emperors The head of 
this dynasty was Lien-pang, a soldier, who, overcoming the 
last emperor, and ascending the throne, took the name of 
Kao-Tsou. 

§ Kao-Tsou reigned with clemency and moderation. In his 
reign, paper, ink, and hair pencils, still used in China instead of pens, 
were invented. He was one of the few emperors who governed for 
themselves. Under the rest, the eunuchs obtained great authority. 

Vuti, one of the princes of this family, was a great encourager of 
learning, and ordered the morality of Confucius to be taught in the 
public schools. He fell under the power of a strong delusion, in 
endeavouring to discover a liquor which would make him immor- 
tal. 

The sixth dynasty began 221 A. C; and ended 265 
A. C. It is called the dynasty of Heou-Han, and lasted' forty- 
four years. China at this time was divided into three empires, 
under three branches of the dynasty of Han. The various 
parts terminated at different periods, although the whole be- 
came reunited at length under the seventh dynasty in 265. 



ISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 47 

Distinguished Characters in Period L 

1. Livy, the prince of Romau historians. 

2. Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet. 

3. Tibulhis, a famous elegiac poet of Rome. 

4. Strabo, a celebrated geographer and historian. 

5. Seneca, a Roman moralist and philosopher. 

6. Lucan, a Roman epic poet. 

7. Pliny, (the elder) the earliest writer on natural history 
whose works are extant. 

8. duintilian, an eminent Roman advocate and rhetori- 
cian. 

9. Tacitus, an eminent philosophic historian. 

10. Plutarch, the principal biographer of antiquity. 

11. Juvenal, an eminent satirical poet. 

12. M.Antoninus, a Roman emperor and philosophical wri- 
ter. 

13. TertuUian, ) , j rxi • . 

14 Orio-en > ^^^"^""^^^ Christian writers, commonly cal- 
ls". Cyprian, ) ^''^ ^'''^''''' 

§ 1. Livy was a native of Padua, but passed the greatest part of his 
life at Naples and Rome, particularly at the conrt of Augustus. Of 
his life not much is known, yet his fame was so universally spread, 
even in his life time, tliat an inhabitant of Gades, now Cadiz, travel- 
led all the way to Rome, merely to see the man whose writings had- 
given him so much pleasure. Livy died at Padua in his sixty-se- 
venth year, A. C. 17. 

This writer is principally known by his history of the Roman em- 
pire. It originally consisted of 140 books, of which only 35 are ex- 
tant. In this work he is always great— clear, spirited, bold, and 
masterly in description. The high rank which he holds among his- 
torians will probably never be disputed. He often copied from his 
contemporaries and predecessors, and especially from Polybins. 

2. Ovid was born at Sulmo, on the 20^1 of March, about 43 years 
B. C. His father intended him for the bar; but though his' pro- 
gress in the study of eloquence was great, yet nothing could divert 
him from paying his court to the muses. Every thintr he wrote 
was expressed in poetical numbers. His name soon became known 
and the great geniuses of the age honoured him with tiieir notice and 
some of them with their correspondence. Augustus also patronized 
him witli the utmost liberality. 

The days of his prosperity were not many. For some cause, 
which IS not ascertained, the emperor banished him to a place named 
1 omos on the Euxme Sea. Here he spent the remainder of his life, 
and he spent it m unmanly repining and impatience. He offered 
the most abject flattery to Augustus, but both he and his successor 



48 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

Tiberius were inexorable. Ovid died in the 7th or 8th year of his 
banishment. 

The poems which he left behind him have, the most of them, sur- 
vived to the present time. They are characterized by sweetness and 
elegance, though often debased by indelicacy of expression. Ovid 
every where paints nature with the hand of a master. His Fasti, a 
part of which is lost, are thought to be the best written of all his 
poems. It is known that the poems of Ovid were favourites with the 
great English bard, John Milton. 

3. Tibullus was a Roman Knight. He at first engaged in the 
toils of war ; but dissatisfied with such a life, he afterwards gave 
himself up to literary ease, and to the pleasures of an enervating Ita- 
lian climate. His favorite study was the writing of love verses. In 
these elegant trifles he shewed himself an accomplished poet. Four 
books of elegies are all that remain of his compositions. They are 
so beautiful in language, and so pure in sentiment, that Tibullus is 
de.servedly ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 

4. Strabo was a native of Amasia, and died 25 years A.. C. His 
geographical work, divided into 17 books, is the only composition of 
his remaining. This is justly considered an elegant, classical, and 
learned work. It is written in Greek, and contains an account of 
the most celebrated places and countries of the world. Strabo tra- 
velled through most of the regions he has described, in quest of ac- 
curate information. Among his books which have been lost, are 
historical commentaries. 

5. Seneca (Lucius Anna^us) was born at Cordova, in Spain. He 
became early distinguished for uncommon abilities, and acquired at 
the bar, the reputation of an eloquent pleader ; but he relinquished 
this road to fame, and became a candidate for public employments. 
He obtained the office of quaestor, but by a shameful indiscretion, 
having incurred the displeasure of Caligula, he was banished to the 
island of Corsica. In five years he was recalled by the empress 
Agrippina, to superintend the education of her son Nero, which of- 
fice he discharged with honor. 

Nero becoming impatient of the restraint, which his preceptor im- 
posed upon his vicious inclinations, pretended that Seneca had con- 
spired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to Seneca to 
acquaint him that he must die ; permitting him to choose the manner 
of his death. The philosopher received the mandate with cheerful- 
ness, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened. The 
blood however flowed slowly — poison and the warm bath were 
therefore resorted to: but being without effect, he was at last smoth- 
ered in the vapour of a stove. His death took place in his seventy- 
second year, 65 A. C. 

6. Lucan was a native of Corduba, and nephew of Seneca. He 
early went to Rome, where his rising talents procured him the favour 
of Nero. He had the imprudence, however, to enter into a poetical 
contest with his imperial patron, and obtaining an easy victory, as 
might have been expected, he ever afterwards was an object of the 
emperor's hatred. The insults to which the poet was continually 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 49 

exposed, provoked his resentment to such a degree, that he joined 
Piso in his conspiracy against that monster. The discovery of the 
plot, of course, consigned him to death. He died a young man, be- 
ing only in his 26th year. 

Of his works, his Pharfalia only remains. This poem celebrates 
the wars of Caesar and Pompey, and is unfinished. It has been va- 
riously estimated. The moral gi-andeur of its sentiments has been 
generally acknowledged, but some think him more of an orator than 
a poet. 

7. Pliny (the elder) was born at Verona, of a noble family. He 
was distinguished in civil life, as well in scientific pursuits. To his 
public duties he attended through the day, but the night he devoted 
to study. He lost no time by idleness or dissipation. Every mo- 
ment that could be spared from business was occupied in the cultiva- 
tion of his mind. He turned his attention more particularly to Nature. 

His work on Natural History, comprised in 37 books, is full of 
erudition. It takes in a wide range of topics, and is written in an 
interesting and sprightly manner, although the style possesses not 
the graces of the Augustan age. He wrote one hundred and sixty 
volumes of remarks and annotations on the various authors whom 
he had read, but these have not reached us. 

His love of knowledge cost him his hfe. An eruption of Vesu- 
vius happening at the time when he lay at Misenum, where he com- 
manded a fleet, he was induced to approach the mountain, for the 
purpose of making his observations on the interesting phenomenon. 
While thus occupied, he was overtaken by the burning lava which 
poured from the volcano, and suffocated and scorched, he soon per- 
ished. This memorable event happened in the 79th year of the Chris- 
tian era. 

8. Quintilian was a native of Spain. After twenty years labo- 
rious employment in teaching rhetoric, and in pleading at the bar at 
Rome, he retired to enjoy the fruits of his labours and industry. 
Here he dedicated his time to the study of literature, and to com- 
position. His success as an author, and the favours of the emperor 
Domitian, afforded him a high delight. But no situation is perfect- 
ly happy — the death of his wife and two sons, filled him with almost 
inconsolable grief. He died 95 A. C. 

His Institutions, in 12 books, is the most perfect system of ora- 
tory extant. In this work, he delineates that which goes to consti- 
tute a perfect orator, together with all the preparation necessary. 
This work remained undiscovered until the fifteenth century, 

9. Tacitus was the son of a Roman knight, and born in the reign 
of Nero. His genius and talents procured him the favour of several 
emperors in succession, and he was raised at last to the consular 
dignity. He was not destitute of distinction as an orator, but he is 
chiefly known to mankind as an historian. A peculiar friendship 
existed between him and Pliny, though the one was sternly partial 
to a republican government, and the other was a great admirer of 
imperial power. 

The compositions of Tacitus were contained in thirty books, of 
5 



50 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

which there now remain only twenty-one. Of these, his Annals in- 
clude sixteen, and his History of the Roman Emperors five. Taci- 
tus has many excellencies of style. Its most striking characteristic, 
perhaps, is conciseness. He has great force and depth of thought, 
and is candid and impartial in his statements. In his biographical 
sketches, he displays an uncommon knowledge of human nature. 
The History of the Reign of Tiberius, is his masterpiece. Some 
have complained of him as being obscure. 

10. Plutarch was a native of Chaeronea. He died at an advanced 
age, in his native place, about the 140lh year A. C. Having travel- 
led in quest of knowledge through Egypt and Greece, he retired to 
Rome, where he opened a school, with great reputation. Trajan, 
who admired his abilities, honoured him with the office of consul, 
and with the government of Illyricum. 

After the death of his imperial patron, he removed from Rome to 
Chaeronea; in which delightful retirement, he composed the great- 
est part of his works. His Lives of Illustrious Men, is the most 
esteemed of his productions. His precision and fidelity are remark- 
able. In his style, he is energetic and animated; though distin- 
guished neither for purity nor elegance. Sometimes he is too cir- 
cumstantial ; yet, on the whole, he has been pronounced to be the 
most entertaining and instructive of all the writers of ancient history. 

11. Juvenal was born at Aquinum, in Italy, and died in the reign 
of Trajan, 128 A. C, at an advanced age. He came early to Rome, 
where he applied himself at first to declamation, and afterwards to 
the writing of satires. 

Sixteen of these pieces are extant. In them, he is an animated, 
severe, and bold reprover of vice, and displays also much humour. 
He, however, defeats his object, in a great measure, by the gross- 
ness and indecency of his manner. His correctness in delineation 
is the result of experience and age. He has been called, with some 
reason perhaps, the last of the Roman poets. 

12. M. Antoninus, whose history has been given before, was born 
at Rome, in the 121st year of the christian era, and died on an ex- 
pedition against the Marcomanni, in the nineteenth year of his reign. 
He was a prince of great talents and virtue. His death was regret- 
ted by mankind as a public loss, and the greatest honour was paid 
to his memory. According to the superstition of the times, he was 
ranked among the gods, and in almost every house his statue was 
found. 

His book of Meditations has been much admired by scholars and 
philosophers. 

13. Tertullian lived at Carthage, and flourished in the reigns of 
Severus and Caracalla. He was originally a pagan, but afterwards 
embraced Christianity, and became one of its ablest defenders. His 
writings evince that he possessed a lively imagination, fervid elo- 
quence, strength of reasoning, and a considerable acquaintance with 
style. His Apology for the Christians, and his Prescriptions, are the 
best esteemed of his numerous works. The historian Gibbon, calls 
him the " stem" Tertullian. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 51 

14 Origen was bom at Alexandria, about the year 185, and died 
m io4, having been presbyter of that city. He wrote in Greek He 
was much celebrated for his parts and learning. He was endowed 
wi h unaffected humility and modesty, and was extremely ri^id in 
loilowmg the christian rules. In the sixty-ninth year of his a^e he 
su^ered martyrdom. His works are many, and include a num'ber 
01 homilies, commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, and different trea- 
tises, besides his Hexapla. This last work first gave the hint for 
the compilation of our polyglot Bibles. Mosheim calls him the lu- 
minary oi the christian world, during the age in which he lived • 
but observes, that he failed in justness of judgment, and was given to 
the Platonic philosophy. 

15. Cyprian was a native and a bishop of Carthage. He was 
born about the beginning of the third century, of heathen parents 
but became a convert to Christianity, and was a principal father of 
the churcii To be more devoted to purity and study, he is said to 
have abandoned his wife; and, as a proof of his charity, he dis- 
tributed his goods to the poor. He wrote eighty-one letters besides 
several treatises, and rendered his works valuable, by the informa- 
tion he conveys respecting the discipline of the ancient church 
A n ^\T beheaded as a martyr, at Carthage, September 14, 258 
A. C. Moshiem speaks of him as possessing the most eminent abili- 
ties and flowing eloquence, but rather too attentive to the ornaments 
of rhetoric. 



PERIOD II. 

The period of the Northern Livasions, extending, from the 
_ Reign of Constmitiiie the Great, 306 years A. C. to 

the Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C, 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 1. The empire of Rome, as has already appeared, 
had been for several years under the sway of a number 
of masters, on all of whom the burden of government 
equally devolved. At the time when Constantine was pro- 
clanned in Britain 306 A. C. upon the death of his father 
Constantius, the two Caesars, Severus and Maximin, had 
aheady been proclaimed 305 A. C— Maxentius, son ofMax- 
imian, had about the same time, 306 A. C, declared himself. 
The next year Licinius was created emperor by Galerius, 
who had never willingly owned Constantine. These were 
Constantine's competitors, and in the course of a few years 
he lived to see them either destroyed in various ways, or 
overcome in battle, and himself remaining the sole master of 
the Roman world. 



52 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. 

Coiistantine has been styled the first christian emperor. 
Whatever may have been his real character, as far as reUgion is 
concerned, it is certain that he stopped the persecutions of the 
christians — that he pubhcly favoured Christianity— defend- 
ed it against its enemies, and tolerated the profession of it in the 
empire. Indeed, under his auspices it became the religion 
of the state, and that great change in the Roman govern- 
ment took place, which, from a persecuting, made it a protect- 
ing power. For the influence which Christianity exerted 
over the pubUc conduct of this emperor, a cause has been as- 
signed, possessing a miraculous character, viz. : his seeing a 
pillar of light in the heavens in the form of a cross, bearing 
the inscription — " By this conquer." 

Whether this were a real sight, or a mere imagination, it is 
asserted in the records of the times, as an undoubted fact ; 
and if it were such, we may readily account for the part 
which Constantine acted, even should we be forced to doubt 
the integrity of his religious principles. 

§ The first exploits of Constantine were directed against the Franks, 
who had then overrun Gaul. It was in 311 or 312, when he was 
marching against Maxentius, and reflecting on the mutabihty of the 
world, and the opinions which then divided the attention of man- 
kind, that he saw the pillar of light mentioned above. This was in 
the latter part of the day, and on the following night, Jesus Christ 
is said to have appeared to him with the same sign. 

In consequence of these appearances, the emperor caused a royai 
standard to be made, bearing a figure similar to that he had seen, 
and commanded that it should be carried before him in his wars. 
Soon espousing the cause of Christianity, he entered Italy, and ad- 
vancing towards the gates of Rome, he attacked and defeated Max- 
entius, who, in attempting an escape, was drowned in the Tiber. 
The next day Constantine was received into the city as a deliverer. 

In 314, a war was kindled between Constantine and Licinius, but 
it soon ended in a peace. Nine years afterwards, hostilities broke 
out again, when Licinius after two defeats was obliged to abdicate, 
leaving the government to Constantine alone. 

2. The administration of Constantine varied very much, 
in the different periods of his life. It was far more com- 
mendable at the beginning, than it at length became. His 
natural temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of 
his reign was marked by several acts of intolerant zeal, and 
sanguinary rigour. In protecting and countenancing the 
Christian religion he deserves our approbation, although it 
must be acknowledged that he brought it into too close an al- 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 53 

liance with the civil power, to consist with its highest pros- 
perity. "^ ^ 

I The character of Conslantine has been the subject of extravaaant 
eulogy, or violent censure, according as friends or foes have been 
concerned in drawing it. We shall do well perhaps to strike the 
balance between the different representations— the prejudices of the 
cotemporary pagans against it we should little regard, nor should 
we think too much of the panegyric which was resorted to for its 
vindication, by the professed Christians of his day. It was a highly 
mixed character which he possessed. ° 

This emperor was the author of an essential change in the 
Roman aflfairs, in another respect besides that of religion. In 
transferring the seat of the empire from Rome to Constantino- 
ple, he atfected its condition during tlie remainder of its ex- 
istence. This step accelerated the destruction of the decay- 
ing fabric. His motives in this project cannot be accurately 
determmed— whether they had reference to ideas of poHcy 
and advantage, or purely to resentment on account of aifronts- 
received at Rome. Whatever they were, his own reputation 
and the public interests were injured. 

The eifect of this measure, though not immediately felt, 
was at length fatal. After the government was apportioned 
among the emperor's sons, there was such a division of the 
forces of the empire, that the northern barbarians, who 
fought with superior numbers, and had been hitherto re- 
pulsed, now began to prevail and to encroach on the pro- 
vinces. ^ 

In an' expedition against the Persians, Constantine died at 
Nicomedia, m the thirtieth year of his reign, and sixty-third 

of his age. 

J The new seat of empire is said to have been pointed out in the 
rhZ'"?^ manner :_Constantine had made choice of a situation at 
Chalcedon, m Asia Minor ; but it seems, in laying out the ground- 
piot an eagle caught up the line and flew'with it ofer to BSkrn 
a city which lay upon the opposite side of the Bosphorus ' 

Here, therefore, it was deemed expedient to fix the seat of emnire • 
and Constantine, after having built a capitol, an amphitSre' 
many churches and other public works, and many mag^Fficent ed^ 
fices, and after haying dedicated the city to the God of mS-s re- 
paired thither, with his whole court. "i^nyis, re 

From this period to the reigns of Honorius and Arcadius 
when tne empire was divided into two distinct sovereio-nties' 
Sender"^' ""^ ^""""^ ^""^ Constantinople are necessarily 

5* 



54 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

3. The Roman world had long been composed of discord- 
ant parts, and the work of corruption and dissolution was at 
this time making a rapid progress. The immense mass was 
kept together for a period longer, only by the vigorous exer- 
tion of despotism. The fabric naturally tottered to its fall, 
when the Pagan principles of rehgion, wliich constituted an 
essential part of its foundation, were removed. The arm of 
power then supplied the props that upheld it, and this, more 
emphatically than was ever the case before. 

§ The Roman armies at this era, were debased by the intermixture 
of Scythians, Goths, Germans, and other barbarous tribes ; and Con- 
stantine, from a timid policy of guarding against mutinies of the 
troops, reduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5000 and 
upwards, to 1000 or 1500. 

4. Before his death, Constantino had settled the empire on 
five princes — his three sous and two nephews. His sons were 
Constantino II., Constans, and Constantius II. The nephews, 
who were Caesars, were named Dalmatius, and Annibahanus. 
Then- sovereignty commmenced 337 A. C. 

Immediately upon the accesssion of these princes, Con- 
stantius contrived to destroy the two Caesars, with five others 
of his cousins and two of his uncles. Soon after this, Con- 
stantine entered into a contention with Constans, and was 
killed ; and Constans in a few years perished in attempting 
to quell a revolt among his subjects. Constantius, therefore, 
remained in the possession of the whole empire. He reigned 
twenty-four years in misfortune and dishonour. 

§ Domestic broils, and insurrections of the troops, had left the west- 
ern frontiers of the empire exposed to the barbarians. The Franks, 
Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians had devastated the fine countries 
on the Rhine, and the Persians had kept up a succession of wars in 
the eastern provinces. At first Constantius obliged the Persians to 
retire ; but he was afterwards overcome in nine signal battles. 

His cousin Julian, he created Caesar, but afterwards regarding him 
with jealousy, and hearing that he was proclaimed emperor, Con- 
stantius marched against him, but died on the road. He had reach- 
ed his 45th year. In person he was diminutive, but capable of 
exertion when occasion required ; he was temperate,but extremely 
uxorious ; and in a word, inherited the defects without the abilities 
of his father. He was much engaged in theological controversy, 
but his religious principles or character cannot inspire us with any 
great respect. 

5. Julian, commonly called the apostate, on account of his 
relapsing kito paganism from a Christian education, was 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 55 

acknowledged by the senate, 361 A. C. His army had pre* 
viously proclaimed him emperor, much against his will ; but 
the insult he received fiom Constantius, who exacted submis- 
sion to himself as the supreme head, determined him to assert 
his claims by force of arms. After due preparation and 
vigorous efforts, he was happily released from this necessity, 
by the death of Constantius. 

Julian had already restored the glory of the Roman arms 
by repressing the invasions of the barbarians. He was not 
without several noble traits, and was fitted by knowledge and 
energy to govern a great people. His enmity against the 
holy religion of Jesus, was deservedly his greatest defect. 
To this he added bigotry in favour of paganism, supersti- 
tion, and no small share of a foolish credulity. He was ad- 
dicted to the studies of magic and astrology. 

He immediately began the reformation of abuses of various 
kinds, but declared in favour of paganism, re-opened the tem- 
ples, and without directly persecuting, did much to injure 
Christians and their cause. In 363, he attempted to rebuild 
the temple at Jerusalem ; but certain miraculous appearances, 
it is said, prevented the execution of his design. During the 
same year, in a war with the Persians, while pursuing a vic- 
torious course, and in a successful engagement, he received a 
mortal wound. He had reigned but three years, and lived 
thirty-one. 

§ The cunning and the malice of Julian, appeared, in treating the 
Christians with contempt. He removed them, as visionaries, from 
all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit of 
the laws to decide their differences, because their religion forbade 
a contentious spirit ; and they were debarred the studies of literature 
and philosophy, as this would subject them to the perusal of pagan 
authors. 

Julian, like many others opposed to Christianity, employed wit 
and ridicule against this religion ; for he was an author as well as a 
warrior. It is said in apology for him, that he used these weapons 
in self-defence — that he was first lampooned by the Christians. 
However that may be, religion is a subject too sacred to be treated 
in that manner. One of his works against the Christians, was Mi- 
sophogon, or beard hater. 

His Caesars is the most famous of his compositions, being a satire 
upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to Constantine. 
This philosophical fable, according to Gibbon, is " one of the most 
agreeable and instructive productions of ancient wit." 

His last moments were spent in conversation with a philosopher 



66 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. 

on the immortality of the soul— he expressed his expectation of 
being united with heaven, and with the stars,* which was one of 
his astrological vagaries, and he breathed his last without indicating 
the least sorrow for his fate, or the suddenness of his death. 

His attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, was made with a 
view to furnish a specious argument against prophecy, and of course 
the truth of revelation. The prodigies on the occasion, which prevent- 
ed the completion of the work, are attested by contemporary writers, 
such as Ammianus Marcellinus, and Gregory Nazianzen. This 
article of history has been the subject of much dispute. But whether 
we allow or not that the prodigies, such as earthquakes and balls of 
fire, happened, to the annoyance of the workmen and to the destruc- 
tion of their commenced work, it is evident that something prevented 
the work, for the temple was never rebuilt, and thus our Saviour's 
prophecy remains as yet unsuspected. " Jerusalem is to be trodden 
down of the Gentiles till the time of the Gentiles is fulfilled." 

6. On the death of Julian, the race of Constantius Clorus 
became extinct, and the Roman world was without a head, 
and without an heir. In this situation, the army finally fixed 
on Jovian, a Pannonian, and the emperor's first domestic, as 
his successor, 363 A. C. Jovian made peace with the Per- 
sians, by the cession of five provinces ; for on Julian's death 
the army was brought to the brink of destruction, and by 
such a sacrifice only could he save it and himself. 

This emperor appUed himself to restore tranquillity to the 
Church. He displayed the banner of the cross, and reversed 
the edicts of Juhan respecting Christianity. His reign, which 
continued only seven months, was mild and equitable. He 
died suddenly at the age of thirty-three years. 

§ While Jovian was on his march to secure the palace of Constan- 
tinople, his wife with an imperial train hastened to meet him, car- 
rying with her their infant son. The moment of embracing her 
husband seemed to be at hand : but the distressing news of his death 
which was immediately communicated to her, most cruelly disap- 
pointed her hopes. He had died the night before, as some report, by 
suflbcation from the vapour of charcoal. 

7. Valentinian I., after a delay of a few days was elected 
emperor by the army, 364 A. C. One month after, he asso- 
ciated his brother Yalens, in the empire, and gave him the 
eastern provinces. From this period, the division of the em- 
pire into Eastern and Western, became fixed and permanent. 

* This was in agreement with the doctrine of Pythagoras and Plato, which 
seems to exclude any personal or conscious immortality. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 57 

The empire, however, was still considered as one body. On 
the East, the Persians were making inroads. The West 
was continually invaded by the northern barbarians. The 
latter were repelled by the emperor in many successful bat- 
tles. He favoured the Christian religion, and his domestic 
administration was equitable and wise. His temper, howe- 
ver, was violent. He died on an expedition against the Ale- 
manni, 367 A. C. 

§ It is said that the barbarians against whom he had last taken 
arms, had provoked him beyond all endurance, so that when their 
ambassadors came to sue for mercy, his anger was raised to such a 
height, and his tones and gestures were so violent, that he ruptured 
a blood vessel, and expired on the spot. 

In the East, Valens held a weak and inefficient sceptre. 
Engaged in the Arian heresy which he favoured, he threw 
the provinces into confusion and contention, and at the same 
time exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians, 
who came under the profession of friends and allies. He 
died in 378 A. C. 

These were the Goths who emigrated from Scandinavia, 
and who, together with several other barbarous nations, will 
soon be described in this account of the Roman empire, since 
they are so intimately connected with its destiny. 

§ In 376, Valens permitted vast hordes of the Goths, who had been 
driven out of their country by the Huns, to settle in Thrace. Here, 
however, they soon plundered the very country conceded to them as 
an asylum. The emperor hastened to oppose them, but he was de- 
feated in the famous battle of Adrianople, two thirds of his army 
having been cut to pieces. 

Being himself wounded, he was carried into a cottage, where on 
the same day he was burnt alive by the barbarians, who set fire to 
the cottage, without knowing that it contained the emperor of the 
East. 

8. Gratian, a son of Yalentinian, succeeded his father, 
367 A. C. He soon became possessor of the whole empire, by 
the death of Valens. Upon this event, he took Theodosius 
as his associate, on whom he conferred the eastern provin- 
ces. He began to reign in his 17th year, and died at the 
age of 24 years. He was a well disposed prince, but defi- 
cient in energy of character. 

§ Gratian undertook to destroy the remains of paganism ; but 
Rome, at the time, happening to be afflicted by a severe famine, the 
favourers of that superstition ascribed the calamity to the wrath of 



68 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD 11. 

the gods. A general dissatisfaction ensued, and Maximus, who 
commanded in Britain, taking advantage of tliis state of things, cau- 
sed himself to be proclaimed emperor. Gratian marching into Gaul 
to oppose him, was deserted by his soldiers, and killed at Lyons, 371 
A. C. 

9. Valentinian II. was the successor of his brother Gra- 
tian. Being dispossessed by Maximus, he took refuge with 
Theodosius, who was then reigning in the East, and who 
restored him to the throne. From that time he ruled with 
justice. After wearing the crown for several years, he was 
strangled by a Gaul named Arbogastus, who had assumed 
an authority over his sovereign, 392 A. C. The tyrant Eu- 
genius, whom the Gaul caused to be proclaimed on this oc- 
casion, was defeated and put to death by Theodosius. 

10. In the East, after the death of Valens, Theodosius 
succeeded to the throne, 379 A. C. He' was deservedly sur- 
named the Great. The barbarians he repelled with success, 
and he secured the prosperity of his people by wise and salu- 
tary laws. It was during his reign, that Christianity obtain- 
ed the entire ascendency over paganism, as the rehgion of 
the Roman people. 

After the death of Valentinian IT., the whole empire came 
into possession of Theodosius ; and he was the last who reign- 
ed over both the East and West. Previously to his decease, 
he divided the empire between his two sons, assigning the 
West to Honorius, and the East to Arcadius. From this 
era they became two distinct empires, and will be treated of 
separately. 

§ Theodosius the Great, was the son of Count Theodosius, a very 
able general, who had been beheaded by the order of Gratian. To 
atone for his injustice, Gratian chose the Count's son as his colleague, 
and gave him the East for his portion. A few days after his eleo 
lion, he gained a signal victory over the Goths, who immediately 
sued for peace. 

In the year 390, Theodosius cruelly punished the inhabitants of 
Thessalonica, who had killed their governor on a certain occasion, 
by sending his soldiers against the place, and putting 7000 to the 
sword. Such, however, was the influence of St. Ambrose, that he 
obliged the emperor, by a public penance, to expiate his crime. 

In religion, Theodosius espoused the orthodox party. His faith 
is said to have been confirmed by an argument adapted to the mean- 
est capacity. He had conferred on Arcadius, his eldest son, the ti- 
tle of Augustus ; and the two princes were seated on a throne to re- 
ceive the homage of their subjects. Among others who oifered their 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 69 

homage, was Amphilochius, bishop of Icenium. He, however, ap- 
proached Theodosms alone with reverence, the son he accosted with 
famiharity. 

The monarch, offended by the conduct of the bishop, gave orders 
that he should be thrust from his presence ; but while the guards 
were engaged m this act, the good bishop exclaimed, "Such is the 
treatment, O emperor ! which the king of heaven has prepared for 
those nnpious men who affect to worship the Father, but refuse to 
acknowledge the co-equal dignity of his divine Son." 

This declaration had the effect of propitiating the emperor, and 
fixing his mind more strongly than before, in the faith. 

11. The Roman empire had now become excessively 
weakened by its unwieldly extent, and had aheady suffered 
much from the incursions of its barbarous neighbours. It 
was, however, destined to suffer far more in the end, from th^ 
last named source. Its separation into two empires, favoured 
the projects of the barbarians, who, from this period, poured in 
hke a torrent upon these cultivated regions. The Western 
empire in a few years was completely overwhelmed. 

A short account of the barbarous nations, who acted so con- 
spicuous a part in this tragedy, seems to be demanded in this 
place. 

The Huns were a fierce and savage nation, at first in- 
habitmg the vast deserts which border China on the north. 
A part of them, owing, it is said, to civil wars, retired to the 
westward, and settled to the north of the Caspian sea, near 
the source of the river Ural. 

§ From thence, 376 A. C, advancing towards the Palus Maeotis 
(sea of Asof ) under Balamir, their chief, they subdued the Alains 
and forced such of them as were capable of bearing arms to join 
them 5 the remainder they put to death. With this accession of 
strength and numbers, they fell upon the Ostrogoths and Visogoths 
and having driven them away from their country, took possession 
of It themselves. This was a region extending from the Tanais to 
the Danube. Their subsequent history, we shall find identified with 
the Roman affairs. 

The Alains inhabited the north of Asiatic Sarmatia, and 
w^ere known to the Romans in the time of Pompey. Under 
the first emperors, they several times invaded the frontier 
provinces. 

§ Those of them who escaped the arms of the Huns, pushed their 
way towards Pannonia, whence advancing still further to the west, 
they united with the Suevi and the Vandals, and continuing their 
migrations, they finally settled in Lusitania, now Portugal, where in 
477, they were conquered by the Visogoths. 



60 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. 

The Vandals issued from Scandinavia, now Sweden, and 
crossing the Baltic, first settled in a part of Germany. On 
account of increasing numbers, they again emigrated, and 
taking their course eastward, possessed themselves of the 
cotmtry towards the Tanais, whence they made several in- 
cursions upon the Roman provinces. 

§ They at length formed a junction with the Suevi and Alains, and 
marched into Spain, a part of which they settled, and called after their 
name, Vandalusia or Andalusia. Their history downward, is pursued 
in that of the Romans. 

The Goths came originally from Scandinavia. They first 
settled in Pomerania, whence advancing towards the east, 
they took up their abode to the north of the lake Mseotis. 
Here they were divided into Yisogoths, or Goths of the West, 
and Ostrogoths, or Goths of the East. 

§ Being overcome by the Huns, they were forced to abandon their 
last settlement, and a part of them took refuge in Pannonia, where 
they remained till they formed the new kingdom of Italy, hereafter 
to be mentioned. 

The Heruh also, originated in Scandinavia. They first emi- 
grated towards the East, and settled on the borders of the 
lake Maeotis. They afterward returned towards the West. 

§ It is said that coming to the ocean, they embarked for Thule, one 
of the Shetland islands, or, as others suppose, what is now called 
Iceland, where they finally settled. As we shall soon learn, the first 
sovereign of the new kingdom of Italy was a chief of the Heruli. 

The Gepidae were another Scandinavian tribe. They 
first planted themselves on the Vistula, whence they advan- 
ced east towards the Tanais. 

§ Here being subdued by Attila, the Hun, they served under him 
in his expedition to Gaul. Upon his death, they shook off the yoke. 
They were finally destroyed by the Lombards. 

The Suevi were a warlike nation of Germany, inhabiting 
that part of it in which Berlin is now situated. They were 
great wanderers, and often changed their habitations. 

§ In 406, they entered Gaul with the Alains and Vandals, with 
whom they passed into Spain, in a part of which they established a 
monarchy. This was afterwards destroyed by the Visogoths. 

The Burgundians first inhabited what now constitutes the 
kingdom of Prussia. From this country they were afterwards 
expelled by the Gepidae. They frequently crossed the Rhuie, 
and invaded Gaul, and brought trouble on the empire. 

There were other minor tribes of barbarians, of which no 
particular account need be here given. They were such as 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 61 

the Bulgari, Alemanni, Venedi, &c. Other rude nations also, 
who followed in the train of these conquerors, will be noticed 
at the proper time. 

12. In the Western Empire, Honorius, who held the sceptre 
by the appointment of his father, Theodosius, proved him- 
self a degenerate son. Stilicho, a famous warrior, had been 
appointed guardian or minister to Honorius, during the mino- 
rity of the latter ; and it was owing to the vigour of the min- 
ister, and not at all to the merits of the emperor, that the 
barbarians of the north were repelled for such a length of time. 
Alaric, king of the Goths, had penetrated into Italy, but 
was defeated by Stilicho near Pollentia, 403 A. C. But this 
able general, having, through the baseness of the emperor, 
been afterwards beheaded, 408 A. C, Alaric again advanced 
and beseiged Rome. The promise of a large sum of gold 
delayed his purposes of vengeance. As, however, it was ne- 
ver fulfilled, Alaric took the city, and committed some part of 
it to the flames, 410 A. C. 

The pillage lasted six days, and multitudes of its inhabi- 
tants were massacred. Durmg the space of more than six 
hundred years, Rome had not been violated by the presence 
of a foreign enemy ; and even long before, as well as during 
that period, her power had been feared abroad. 

§ The weakness of Honorius, among other causes, encouraged the 
attack of the barbarians upon the empire. From the wilds of Scan- 
dinavia, that northern hive, as it has been fitly called, as well as from 
the east, they issued in almost incredible numbers. Previously to 
their descent upon Italy, the Goths, under Alaric, had spread their 
devastations quite to the borders of the eastern capital, and through 
the classic fields of Greece. 

Stihcho made a stand against the invaders. While they beseiged 
Asta, where the forces of Honorius had taken refuge, Stilicho cut 
his way through the Gothic camp under the walls of that place, and 
thus rescued the emperor. The Goths afterwards pitching their 
camp in the vicinity of Pollentia, were suddenly attacked by Stilicho, 
and several thousands of them were slain. Among the captives was 
the wife of Alaric, who was compelled to implore the clemency of 
the victor. The Goths, however, were but partially checked in con- 
sequence of this victory. 

Stilicho might, perhaps, have delayed for some time the fall of the 
empire, but his plans were frustrated by the machinations of his ri- 
vals, and he fell a victim to the suspicions of the tmgrateful emperor. 
408 A. C. 

Alaric had long stood in a menacing attitude, and now prepared 
to complete his designs upon Italy. About this time, vast numbers 

6 



62 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. 

of Goths pouring down upon Germany, forced the nations whom 
they dispossessed, to fall upon Italy. These joined their arms to 
those of Alaric, who made an attack on Rome. 

He met with success ; and this great city, which had so long been 
the terror of the world, was sacked, plundered and partially burnt, 
410 A. C, by tlie savage tribes of Germany and Scythia. The popu- 
lation of Rome, at this time, might amount to 1,200,000 men ; but 
the nobles Avere wholly sunk in luxury and effeminacy, and the 
populace had become exceedingly debased, by the manumission of 
slaves or the influx of foreigners. They were nothing more than 
the shadow of their ancestors in bravery and spirit. Hence the suc- 
cess of the arms of the barbarian. 

The catastrophe which Rome experienced, was hastened also by 
famine. War had prevented the cultivation of the lands, and the 
ports being blocked up, the citizens were reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremities — human flesh was publicly sold. 

Treachery completed the Avork. The Salarian gate was opened 
at midnight, by some of the Romans themselves, and the enemy 
rushed in. The scene v^'as dreadful ; for although the conqueror, in 
his magnanimity had given orders that none except the armed 
should be killed, great numbers of citizens were put to death, and 
larger numbers still, were reduced from affluence to want and cap- 
tivity. Though the city was pillaged and set on fire, it is thought 
that few, comparatively, of its magnificent edifices were destroyed. 
Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, but 
death suddenly put an end to his ambitious projects. He 
died after a short illness. Honorius, instead of improving 
this opportunity to recover his lost provinces, entered into a 
treaty with Ataulfus, Alaric's successor, gave him in mar- 
riage his sister, Placidia, and ceded to him a portion of Spain. 
By these and other acts, Honorius suffered the empire^ jjy 
degrees, to pass from the dominion of the Romans. Ho- 
norius continued to reign till the year 422. 

13. Valentinian III. was crowned two years after the 
death of Honorius, 424 A. C. He was the son of Constan- 
tius, a general of Honorius, and during seven months, an as- 
sociate w4th him in the government. In 439, the emperor 
lost his dominions in Africa, by the revolt of Count Boniface, 
who delivered that part of the empire to the Vandals. 

§ Aetius, a general of Valentinian, being jealous of Boniface, by 
means of his artifices drew the latter into a revolt, and was em- 
ployed on the part of the empire to punish him on this account. 
Boniface defeated the first army that \vas sent against him ; but dis- 
trusting his strength to cope singly with his enemies, he was in- 
duced to call in the assistance of Genseric, king of the Vandals. The 
measure, however, was ruinous to his cause. 



^ ROMAN EMPIRE. 63 

The Vandal having thus obtained a footing in Africa, which he 
greatly desired, could not be prevailed on afterwards, by the offer of 
large sums of money, to retreat. Although tlie compact between 
the two generals was, that they should divide Africa between them, 
Genseric occupied the whole country, except three cities, and these 
he soon took. 

Shutting up Boniface in Carthage, he compelled him, at the ex- 
piration of a year, to surrender ; and the Roman general experienced 
the mortification of beholding all Africa, which he had once saved, 
ravaged in the most wanton manner, by the barbarians whose assist- 
ance he had invited. The kingdom which Genseric thus establish- 
ed, did not last quite a century. 

The other provinces of the empire were protected against 
the invasion of the barbarians, by Aetiiis. The Hunsj at this 
time, had begun to make their ravages in the empire. Under 
Attila, their leader, in 445, they first overran Illyricum, 
Thrace, Dacia, and Meesia, and laid the Romans mider tribute. 
Soon afterwards, with an army of 500,000 men, Attila in- 
vaded Gaul, and threatened the destruction of the em- 
pire. The forces of the Romans, under Aetius, met him in 
battle, on the plains of Chalons, and defeating him, with the 
loss of 160,000 men, checked his progress for a time. 

Not long after, however, he invaded Italy, and Valentin- 
ian bemg shut np in Rome, by the arms of the barliarian, 
was compelled to purchase a peace. Attila dying suddenly, 
in the midst of his successes, the empke of the West was 
saved from immediate destruction. 

§ The march of the Huns was extremely desolating. To their 
leader, Attila, the victims of his ambition have given the expressive 
appellation of " The Scourge of God."- He first invaded the East, 
which he ravaged at pleasure; its emperor, Theodosius, being dis- 
posed rather to conciliate his favour by a tribute, than to attempt 
liis expulsion by force of arms. Disdaining so mean spirited an 
enemy, he turned to the West ; where his appearance has already 
been described. His body was secretly buried, enclosed in three 
coffins, the first of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. 
The men who dug his grave were put to death, lest they should re- 
veal the place of his burial. 

Aetius, whose military talents had been so serviceable to 
the empire, soon fell a victim to the jealousy of the eunuch 
Herachus, and Yalentinian stabbed him with his own hand. 
The next year the emperor himself was assassinated. 

14. Maximus II. who had instigated the murder of Val- 
entinian, was proclaimed, 455 A. C. He married Eudoxia, 



64 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. 

the widow of his predecessor, to whom he impmdently re- 
vealed his guilt in the assassination of the emperor. To re- 
venge this deed, she called in the assistance of Genseric, 
king of the Vandals. Upon his arrival, Maxmius fled, but 
he met the vengeance of his people, who stoned him to death, 
on account of his cowardice. 

§ Maximus was a Roman senator of the Ancian family, and was in- 
cited to the destruction of Valentinian, by the dishonom' Avhich the 
latter had cast upon his wife. However respectable Maximus was 
in private hfe, his abihties were inadequate to stay the fall of the em- 
pire, had he been longer continued. 

Eudoxia had reason to repent of her imprudence. The 
call upon Genseric for aid, well comported with his private, 
sinister aims. After he had landed in Italy, with an army 
of Moors and Vandals, he took Rome, delivered it up to pil- 
lage during several days, destroyed many of the monuments 
of ancient genius, and conveyed the empress and her two 
daughters back with him in triumph to Carthage. 

15. From the death of Maximus, 455 A. G. there was a 
succession of eight emperors, during twenty years ; at the 
expiration of which, as we shall soon learn, the empire ter- 
minated. Little more than their names can be mentioned 
below. 

§ Avitus was acknowledged in Gaul by his troops. Having crea- 
ted Ricimer, a Roman senator, general of his armies, the latter soon 
entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor ; and Avitus, at first 
arrested and deposed, at last died while on the road to Italy, 457 
A. C. Ricimer, though an able commander, was a savage aiid tur- 
bulent demagogue. 

Majorian was proclaimed after the deposition of Avitus. He 
made an unsuccessful attempt against the kingdom of the Vandals 
in Africa. This emperor published several wise laws for the refor- 
mation of abuses, but the reputation which he acquired for wisdom 
and virtue, excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who deposed and slew 
him, 461 A. C. 

Severus HI. was created emperor by Ricimer, who governed un- 
der his name. Ricimer, after the expiration of four years, found it 
convenient to poison the nominal master of himself and the empire. 

Athemius was called to the empire by the united suffi-ages of 
the senate, the army, and the people, in 467. To attach Ricimer to 
his interest, who was become extremely formidable, he gave him, 
his daughter in marriage. Ricimer, however, soon having a dif- 
ference with his father-in-law, besieged and pillaged Rome. Du- 
ring this transaction the emperor was murdered. 

Olybrius, who was sent with an army by Leo, emperor of the 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 65 

East, to protect Athemius against Ricimer, was seduced by the lat- 
ter and proclaimed emperor, but died three months after, 472. 

Glycerus, an obscure soldier, favoured by a Burgundian prince, 
assumed the title of emperor at Ravenna ; but Leo had conferred it 
on Juhus Nepos, who took Glycerus prisoner, and caused him to be 
consecrated bishop of Salona, 473. 

Julius Nepos was proclaimed at Rome 474. The next year, Ores- 
tes, a Pannonian, whom he sent into Gaul, revolted, and besieged the 
emperor in Ravenna. Nepos escaped into Dalmatia, where at the 
end of five years he was assassinated. 

Augustulus son of Orestes was made emperor by his father. 
After a reign of eleven months, he was taken prisoner by Odoacer 
king of the Heruli, and sent into Campania, where he lived in a 
private station. 

16. In the Eastern Empire, after its final sepai'ation from 
the West, in the tmie of Theodosius, 395 A. C., there were 
transactions which deserve our notice. Theodosius, as we 
have seen, assigned the East to his son Arcadius. This 
prince was then eighteen years of age, and he proved to be 
both weak and'dissolute. He suflfered himself to be governed 
by favourites, and at length by Eudoxia, his empress, who 
made it her great object to plunder the revenues of the state. 

17. Thedosius II. son of Arcadius, succeeded to the em- 
pire 408. He has the reputation of having been a prince of 
mild disposition, and piety of conduct, but otherwise desti- 
tute of those qualities that are essential to a sovereign. But 
his deficiencies were supplied by the genius and address of 
his sister, Pulcheria, who aided in the administration of the 
the government. The latter part of his life was greatly dis- 
turbed by the invasions of the Barbarians. 

§ Pulcheria, wiiose talents for government were extraordinary, 
sought to strengthen her influence and power, by securing for her 
brother a companion in marriage, who, as she hoped, would ever be 
grateful to her benefactress. The person on whom her choice, as 
well as that of Theodosius, fell, was the beautiful and learned Athe- 
nais. 

Chance had made her known to Pulcheria. She was the daughter 
of an Athenian philosopher, who had taken the greatest care of her 
education. Such was his conviction of her entire accomplishment 
in every respect, that in the disposition of his property, he left his 
two sons the whole of it, except one hundred pieces of gold, with 
the declaration that " her own good fortune would be suflicient for 
her." 

With a view to obtain her just share of the inheritance from her 
brothers, after she had tried the forms of law in vain, the Athenian 
maiden came to claim the interference and protection of Pulcheria. 

6* 



66 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. 

at Constantinople. Her sense and merit highly pleased the princess, 
and in connection with her cliarms, won the heart of Theodosius. 
In 431 she embraced Christianity, and was baptised by the name of 
Eudocia, and the same year was united to the emperor in marriage. 
She treated her brothers with singular magnanimity, raising them 
to the rank of consuls and praefects, and though she at length lost 
the affections of Theodosius on an imputation of infidelity, and 
chose to retire to Jerusalem, she ever protested that she was wholly 
innocent. She died about 460, ten years after the death of her 
husband. 

18. Marcian, a native of Thrace, was called to the throne 
by Pulcheria 450, whose hand also he received in marriage. 
After a reign of seven years, he departed this hfe, while pre- 
paring for a war against Genseric,* king of the Vandals. 

§ Marcian possessed some eminent qualities, as is evinced by his 
reply to Altila when the latter claimed the annual tribute, consented 
to by Theodosius. " I have," said he, " gold for my friends, and 
iron for ray enemies." 

19. Leo I., also a native of Thrace, was called to the em- 
pire on the death of Marcian 457 A. C. He reigned till 
nearly the period of the destruction of the Western empire. 
He had some domestic enemies, who gave him trouble ; though 
he finally crushed Asper, through whose influence he had 
been raised to the throne, and who at length revolted against 
his master. During the latter part of his reign, his domi- 
nions were much ravaged by the Goths. He died a natural 
death, at an advanced age, 474 A. C. 

§ Leo 1st has been greatly praised by some historians, and cen- 
sured by others. An instance of his temperate firmness in resisting 
the oppression of his patron Asper, is recorded as follows : — 

Asper had presumed to reproach him with a breach of promise, 
in regard to a certain appointment. " It is not proper," said he, in- 
solently shaking the purple, " that the man who is invested with 
this garment, should be guilty of a falsehood." " Nor is it proper," 
retorted Leo, " that a prince should be compelled to resign his own. 
judgment and the public interest, to the pleasure of a subject." 

PERSIA. 

20. Of Persia., during this period, we have only to say in 
general, that it was governed successively by eight princes, of 
whom Sapores II. was the most distinguished ; that at the 
beginning, and towards the conclusion of the period, the na- 
tion warred against the Romans ; but that through the inter- 
mediate space, the most profound peace subsisted between the 



CHINA. 67 

two powers. A few particulars respecting some of the Per- 
sian sovereigns, will appear below. 

§ Sapores, II., who was crowned before his birth, in the person of 
his mother, began to persecute the Christians of his dominions in 326. 
In a few years after, he endeavoured to recover the five provinces 
yielded by his grandfather, Narses, to the Romans, but was terribly 
defeated by Constantius. After this event, he gained a celebrated 
battle at Sirigate, in Mesopotamia, and'took several cities. 

In the war with Julian, in 363, he was pursued into the very 
heart of his dominions, but was delivered by the death of that em- 
peror. He died in 380, after a reign of seventy years. His charac- 
ter was a compound of pride and ferocity. He cruelly persecuted 
the Christians, during forty years. 

Sapores III., was a wise prince ; he lived at peace with the Ro- 
mans, and died lamented. Under Isdigartes I., a persecution of the 
Christians commenced, which continued fifty years, during his reign 
and that of some of his successors. 

CHINA. 

21. During this period, the seventh dynasty of the empe- 
rors of China terminated; as also the eighth, a httle after the 
conclusion of the period. 

Under the first of tliese, the empire, which had been divi- 
ded into three, became united. It continued one hundred and 
fifty-five years, under fifteen emperors. It is called the di- 
nasty of Tcin-ou-ti. The eighth was the dynasty of Song. 
It began under a revolted general, 420 A. C, and lasted fifty- 
nine years, under eight emperors. 

§ One of the sovereigns of the 8th dynasty, whose name was Venti, 
was killed by his own son, and the parricide fell by the hands of 
his brother. The latter made himself many enemies by the freedom 
of his speech, for which, in the end, he lost his life. One of his 
wives, whom he had offended by calling her old, stifled him in his 
bed. 

Distinguished Characters in Period II. 

1. Lactantius, an elegant writer, and an able defender of 
Christianity : sometimes called the Christian Cicero. 

2. Ossian, a Caledonian bard. 

3. Eusebius, an eminent ecclesiastical historian. 

4. Eutropius, a Latin historian and sophist. 

5. Julian, a Roman emperor, an acute, but mahgnant in- 
fidel philosopher. 

6. Basil, the Great, an eminent father in the church. 



68 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IT. 

7. Gregory Nazianzen, a theological and polemical writer. 

8. Claudian, an elegant Latin poet. 

9. St. Chrysostom, and ) Learned and eloquent ministers 

10. St. Augustine, \ and writers. 

§ 1. Lactantius proved the truth of the Christian rehgion, and ex- 
posed the absurdities of paganism. He was the most eloquent of 
the ecclesiastical Latin writers of his age. His principal works, 
are his treatises concerning the Divine Wrath, and the Works oi 
God, and his Divine Institutions. The last, in seven books, is written 
with uncommon elegance and purity. As a theologian, he had 
some errors. He died in 325. 

2. Ossian was a rude Caledonian. He is supposed to hare flou- 
rished in the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal. 
He wrote in Gaelic ; and the poems that go by his name, translated 
by Macpherson, are marked by a simple and sublime wildness. If 
they are really Ossian's, he must be considered as the first of the poets 
of this period. There is, however, strong ground of doubt, in respect 
to the authenticity of these poems, as a whole. 

3. Eusebius died in 338 A. C. He was bishop of Csesarea, and 
enjoyed the favour of Constantine. He opposed Arius, although he 
held to a certain disparity and subordination in the Godhead. He 
was a man of immense reading, and was greatly versed in ecclesi- 
astical history and sacred erudition. He distinguished himself by 
his writings, which consisted of an ecclesiastical history, the life of 
Constantine, evangelical preparations, and many other treatises, 
most of which are now lost. 

4. Eutropius lived in the age of Julian, under whom he was a 
soldier in the war against Persia. He is supposed to have been a 
Roman Senator. He wrote several works ; but none of them re- 
main except his Roman History. This was an epitome of the trans- 
actions of Rome, from the age of Romulus to the reign of Valens. 
It is characterised by conciseness and precision, but not by elegance. 

5. Julian, as has been already narrated, was elevated to the throne, 
361 A. C. He then, although he had been educated according to the 
principles of the Gospel, publicly disavowed its truths, and offered 
solemn sacrifices to all the Gods of Ancient Rome. This change of 
religious opinion, was attributed to the austere manner with which 
he was instructed in Christianity ; though others ascribe it to his in- 
tercourse with the philosophers of Athens, and their influence over 
his mind. From this circumstance, the appellation of apostate, has 
been attached to him. Some of his writings have been preserved, 
in which he has shown great powers of ridicule in a bad cause. But 
we need not repeat the particulars that have already been given, res- 
pecting his character and writings. 

6. Basil, surnamed the Great, was bishop of Caesarea. He was 
persecuted by Valens, for refusing to embrace Arianism. Accord- 
ing to Mosheim, " in point of genius, controversial skill, and a rich 
and flowing eloquence, he was surpassed by very few of his contem 
poraries." He died in 379. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 69 

7. Gregory Nazianzen, was surnamed the divine. He was patri- 
arch of Constantinople, but the right to that station being disputed, 
he abandoned it. His birth occurred in 324, and his death in 389. 
He held an honourable place among the theological and political wri- 
ters of the times. His writings compare well with those of the Gre- 
cian orators, in eloquence and variety. His sermons are better 
adapted to philosophers than common hearers, but are, nevertheless 
not wanting in seriousness and devotion. He most ably defended 
the orthodox faith concerning the Trinity. 

8. Claudian was a native of Alexandria, in Egypt, and flourished 
in the age of Honorius and Arcadius. His style is not corrupted by 
the false taste of the age. But although he wrote elegant verses, 
he depicted no powerful passions, and exhibited no commanding 
genius. His matter was meagre, but his language was pure, his ex- 
pressions happy, and his numbers melodious. His best compositions 
are his poems on Rufinus and Eutropius. 

9. St. Chrysostom, John, was so called on account of his extraor- 
dinary eloquence. He was born at Antioch, of a noble family, about 
354, consecrated bishop of Constantinople in 398, and died in 40X 
His works are voluminous. He was an elegant preacher, and pos- 
sessed a noble genius. On account of his severity in opposing the 
corruption of the times, he procured himself many enemies. He was 
so great a disciplinarian, that he even recommended to private be- 
lievers, though very injudiciously, the use of outward violence, in re- 
sisting the wickedness of men. 

10. St. Augustine was bishop of Hippo, in Africa. He led an aus* 
tere life, and died in his seventy-sixth year, 430 A. C. He distinguish- 
ed himself by his writings, and his reputation is great, even to this 
day. He was characterised by a sublime genius, an unintermitted 
pursuit of truth, an indefatigable application, an invincible patience, 
a sincere piety, and a subtle and Uvely wit. The solidity and ac- 
curacy of his judgment, were not, however, proportionable to his 
eminent talents in other respects. 

Augustine's book concerning the City of God, has been pronounced 
to be " a work extremely rich and ample in point of matter, and fill- 
ed with the most profound and diversified erudition." In all his 
writings, this father displayed an extensive acquaintance with Pla- 
to's philosophy. 



PERIOD III. 

The period of the Justinian Code, and of the Wars of 
Belisarius ; extending from the Extinction of the 
Western Empire, 476 years A. C, to the flight of 
Mahomet, 622 years A. C. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
The dark ages, as they have been commonly called, commenced 



70 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

with this period. The human intellect, and the state of society, had 
for some time previous, been retrograde. But upon the conquest of 
the Western Empire by the barbarians, the darkness became more 
especially obvious, and we shall find it prevailing over the nations, 
though with some intervals of light, nearly 1000 years. It is believ- 
ed, however, that mankind have been apt to overrate, in some res- 
pects, the infelicities of the dark ages, and to forget, that after all, 
strong proofs were at times afforded, of intellectual vigour, and of the 
high enjoyment of life. A few men of distinguished abilities ap- 
peared during the present period, though, in general, the age is not 
to be compared with several that preceded it. 

Sec. 1. We have now to recoixl the melancholy extinction 
of the Western Empire of the Romans — an empire, the most 
powerful that has ever existed. This event occurred, 476 
A. C. upon the taking of Rome by Odoacer, prince of the 
HeruU. Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, was at that time 
on the throne. Odoacer, having subdued Italy, and taken 
its capital, spared the life of Augustulus, upon condition of 
his resigning the empire. 

§ The empire having been long beset on every side by barbarians, 
great numbers of them were admitted into the Roman legions, to 
protect it against the rest. These, in the reign of Augustulus, having 
revolted, demanded a third part of the lands of Italy, as a settlement 
for themselves and families. This being refused, they advanced to 
Rome, under Odoacer, and as conquerors, held the country. 

Odoacer was an officer of the emperor's guards, at the head of the 
barbarians who had enlisted in the armies. When he had secured 
Rome, Augustulus, who was a feeble youth, was directed to express 
his resignation to the senate, while that body, in an epistle to Zeno, 
emperor of the East, disclaimed the necessity of continuing the im- 
perial succession in Italy, since, in the submissive language of adula- 
tion, they observed, "the majesty of the monarch of Constantinople, 
was sufficient to defend both the East and the West :" at the same 
time they begged the favour, that the emperor would invest Odoacer 
with the title of patrician, and the administration of the diocese of 
Italy. Their request was granted, and to Augustulus, was assigned 
a splendid income, to support him in a private station. 

Thus the Western Empire of Rome passed from the hands 
of its ancient masters, into the possession of the barbarians, 
who had so long harassed it by their invasions. As an em- 
pire, it had existed more than five hundred years, computing 
the time from the battle of Actium. The whole period of 
its duration, from the building of the city, was more than 
twelve hundred years. 

The ruin of the Roman empire, was the result of its great 
extent, connected with its moral corruption. The perfections 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 71 

of God are concerned in accomplishing, by natural causes, 
the extinction of enormously guilty natfons. Rome, having 
become a mass of luxury, weakness, and profligacy, fell, at 
last, an easy prey to the barbarous tribes that poured in upon 
its dominions. 

§ The Northern invaders did not originate the catastrophe which 
Rome experienced ; they scarcely hastened it. As much of crime 
and barbarism as they brought with them, they became, upon their 
settlement in the south of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the na- 
tive citizens themselves. Without the agency of these invaders, 
darkness and barbarism would have visited the Roman world, from 
the operation of causes within its own bosom ; especially ft-om the 
extreme profligacy and irreligion which prevailed among all classes. 

While the Roman empire in the West, thus fell into ruins, the sis- 
ter empire in the East, which appeared to be in a similar situation, 
not only continued to stand, but even existed for the space of nearly 
one thousand years more, though in comparative imbecility and de- 
pression. It existed, notwithstanding it suffered all the internal 
evils which produce the ruin of a state, and was shaken by all the 
storms, which burst upon the nations, during the middle ages. 
This phenomenon, which has not a parallel in the history of 'the 
world, may, in some measure, be explained from the almost^impreg- 
nable site of its capital alone, in connexion with the despotism, 
which sometimes remains the last support of fallen nations. 

We shall continue the portion of its history belonging to this 
period, before we bring into view the new state of things, consequent 
on the occupation of Italy and the West by the barbarians. The 
recent kingdom which they founded, deserves a separate account. 

2. The Eastern Empire of the Romans, sometimes called 
the Greek Empire, and the Empire of Constantinople, was 
at this time, (474 A. C.) under the sway of Zeno, son-in-law 
to Leo. He was odious, on account of his debauchery ; and 
after having once fled from his throne, and been restored to it, 
and engaged in the suppression of several conspiracies, he 
met with a miserable end, being buried alive. He reigned 
about seventeen years. 

§ Leo II., son of Zeno, and grandson to Leo I., was designed for tlie 
empire ; but being of tender age when his grandfather died, Zeno 
was made regent. But the death of the child, the same vear, left 
Zeno in the possession of the throne. The intrigues of the empress 
Venna, his mother-in-law, embittered his life, and distracted his 
reign. She aided one or two of the conspiracies that were carried 
on against him. 

He came to his end by an awful act of Ariadne, his wife. She 
loved him not, and profiting by an epileptic fit, to which the emperor 
was subject, caused him to be precipitately interred. When the 



72 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

sepulchre was opened, a few days after, it was found that Zeno had 
devoured the flesh off his own arms. 

3. Anastasius, an officer of the palace, marrying the widow 
of Zeno, was raised to the throne, 491 A. C. He was old 
at this time, but reigned about twenty-seven years. The 
beginning of his reign was auspicious, but it was otherwise 
in the end. He died a natural death, in his eightieth year. 

4. Justin T., the Thracian, ascended the throne after the 
death of Anastasius. He governed with great prudence. In 
526, he sent the celebrated Belisarius against the Persians, 
who had broken the truce subsisting between the two em- 
pires. The emperor, however, died before the conclusion of 
the war, having reigned about nine years. 

§ Justin was the son of a ploughman, and rose by his talents to 
the fii-st military dignities, before he was chosen emperor. He was 
so illiterate, however, as to be unable to write his own name, and 
secured respect, only by the good sense which he manifested in the 
choice of his counsellors. 

5. Justinian I., nephew of Justin, assumed the reins of 
government, 527 A. C. His personal character was far from 
inspiring respect ; but his reign was successful, and he was 
extremely fortunate in his generals and counsellors. The 
exploits of his generals, and the production of the code of 
laws that goes by his name, of which the learned Trebonian 
was the author, form an era in history. 

Towards the brave and noble Belisarius, the warrior who 
at first fought his battles, the emperor was ungrateful in the 
extreme. This great general, by his arms and policy, pre- 
served his master on his throne, when his expulsion from it 
was likely to be effected, by the civil factions which raged at 
Constantinople. He also defeated the Persians in three san- 
guinary battles, in different years ; destroyed the kingdom q{ 
the Vandals in Africa, and recovered that province to the em- 
pire; and wrested Italy from its Gothic sovereign, restoring it 
for a short space of time, to the authority of its ancient masters. 

Italy, however, was once more subdued by the Goths. 
From this time the fortunes of Belisarius began to changa 
He was compelled to evacuate Italy, having been more tlian 
once recalled, through the emperor's meanness and jealousy. 
On his final return to Constantinople, his long services were 
rejiaid with disgrace, and he was superseded in the command 
of the armies, by the eunuch Narses. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 73 

§ Belisarius, more than any other general during the later periods 
of the empire, revived the fainting glory of Rome. On the plains 
of Dara, he defeated the Persians, with great slaughter; and his con- 
duct, in the sedition of Constantinople, secured the esteem of the 
emperor. When Justinian, by favouring a certain faction,* had near- 
ly involved himself in destruction, and was about to seek his safety 
in flight, Belisarius, amidst the uproar and confusion which pre- 
vailed, came to the aid of his master. A corps of three thousand 
veteran troops he led against the populace of Constantinople, and it 
is computed that no less than thirty thousand persons perished in 
the carnage. So signal a chastisement had the effect of overawing 
the infuriated and divided citizens ; and the games of the circus, out 
of which the contention arose, were, during several years, interdicted. 
The war which Belisarius carried on against the Vandals, in Africa, 
was marked by signal success ; but no particulars need to be related, 
except that Belisarius was recalled by the jealousy of Justinian, and 
that his victories and prompt obedience, secured him the honours of 
a triumph. 

In the war against the Gothic power in Italy, 537 A, C. Justinian v/as 
equally fortunate through the exploits of his illustrious lieutenant, 
and equally mean in his conduct towards this hero. The Gothic 
forces were obliged to retire before the Roman army, upon its land- 
ing in Sicily and Italy. Resistance was made, but in vain. The fame 
of Belisarius, had inspired even the degenerate Romans with courage. 
Long before this general reached Rome, the Gothic king had 
abandoned it ; and though the policy was singular, the latter did it 
with a view to wrest the city from the hands of Belisarius, at some 
future time. In the course of a few months, Vitiges, the Gothic 
king, advanced towards Rome, at the head of one hundred thousand 
warriors. The inconsiderable army of Belisarius, however, per- 
formed prodigies of valour, and not only defended Rome, during a 
long siege, but, with the aid of some reinforcements from the East, 
obliged the Gothic king to retire, first to Ravenna, and at last to sur- 
render all the towns and villages of Italy. 

This was no sooner effected, than the jealousy of Justinian re- 
manded his lieutenant to Constantinople ; nor was the latter allowed 
the honour of a second triumph. But though the conduct of the 
emperor towards him was utterly despicable, the admiration of the 
people was an ample indemnity. 

The valour of Belisarius, at this era, saved the East ; but there is 
no time to recount his achievements. Suffice it to say, that the 
necessity of the emperor, induced him again to appoint Belisarius 
to the command of Italy, inasmuch as it had been nearly overrun, 

* There were two factions in Constantinople, which were distinguished by a 
diversity of colour. The support of one or other of these, became necessary, to 
every candidate for civil or ecclesiastical honors. The greens were attached to 
the family or sect of Anastasius : the blues were devoted to orthodoxy, and 
Justinian. The latter, the emperor favoured during five years, though their 
tumults endangered equally his own safety, and the peace of the city. 

7 



74 MODERN HISTORY. — ^PERIOD III. 

during this interval, by the arms of the brave and virtuous Totila. 
No sooner, however, had he a prospect of driving the Gothic king 
from Italy, than he was called off to some less important warfare, 
which was intended as a disgrace to him. 

The declining years of the life of this hero, were passed in Con- 
stantinople ; but even at that late period, they were crowned by a 
victory, in which he saved the ungrateful Justinian and his capital 
from the ravages of the Bulgarians. The unnatural suspicions of 
the emperor followed him to the grave ; for even in extreme old 
age, he suffered in his property and comforts, for a time, from the 
false imputation of conspiracy. 

Narses, who was able in council, was also successful in 
war. He had the honour of completing the conquest of Ita- 
ly, by defeating Totila, in a decisive engagement, in which 
tiie Gothic king was slain. Under the title of duke, Narses. 
gaming some other victories, governed Italy with ability for 
thirteen years. 

Justinian died in his eighty-third year. He would be but 
little thought of by mankind, were it not for those illustrious 
men who foiight his battles, and presided in his councils. He 
had the sagacity to perceive their merits, and happy would it 
have been, had he possessed the magnanimity to reward them. 
His vices were meanness, vanity, caprice, and tyranny : his 
virtues were chastity, temperance, vigilance, and studiousness. 
We pretend not to determine which preponderated. 

Imposing as was his reign, he lived in a miserable age. 
His subjects were continually afflicted by war, pestilence, and 
famine. The empire shone out with a degree of brilliancy 
under his auspices, but after his death it shone no more. Its 
history, so far as it is necessary to notice it, is henceforth 
made up, more than ever, of disasters, miseries, and crimes. 

6. Upon the death of Justinian, his nephew, Justin II. 
ascended the throne, 565 A. C. He was a man of weak in- 
tellect, and was governed by his consort, Sophia, though his 
intentions appear to have been good. The troubles and cala- 
mities which befel his family and empire, threw him into an 
incurable frenzy. In consequence of this event, Tiberius, his 
son-in-law, was associated in the empire. It was soon after his 
elevation, that the Lombards established themselves in Italy. 
In his reign, not only was Italy lost again to the empire, 
but Africa desolated, and the East ravaged by the Persians. 
§ The advice which Justin gave to Tiberius, upon the introduction 
of the latter to the empire, was worthy of any prince. " Love,' 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 75 

said he, " the people as yourself; cultivate the affections, and main- 
tain the discipline of the army ; protect the fortunes of the rich, 
and relieve the necessities of the poor." The last four years of his 
life were passed in tranquillity. He reigned nine years alone, and 
four in connexion with Tiberius. 

7. Tiberius, who assumed the name of Constantine, was 
sole possessor of the throne in 578. His reign was short, 
but it was rendered glorious by his defeat of the Persians. 
He was accounted a just, humane, temperate, and brave 
prince. 

§ On his death-bed, Tiberius bestowed his diadem on his son-in-law, 
Maurice, who had proved himself an excellent general. 

S. Maurice, a native of Cappadocia, ascended the throne 
582 A. C. He reigned twenty years, m almost continual 
turbulence. He chose his predecessors for his model, nor 
was he destitute of sense and courage, in whatever he under- 
took for the Avelfare of his subjects. Avarice is said to have 
been his great failing ; but it is more probal^le, that his rigid 
virtue and economy were not duly appreciated in those cor- 
rupt times. ,| 
In 602, he obliged his army to take up their winter quar- 
ters beyond the Danube, upon which a revolt ensued, and 
Phocas, being proclaimed emperor, advanced to Constantino- 
ple. Maurice and his children were cruelly slain. 

§ After Maurice fell into the hands of Phocas, the jealous and cruel 
rebel caused the emperor to be dragged from his sanctuary at Chal- 
cedon, and his five sons to be murdered, one after the other, before 
Ills eyes.^ Maurice bore this agonizing sight with such firmness and 
resignation, that he repeated, with streaming tears, at every wound, 
the words of David, "Thou art just, O Lord ! in all thy judgments." 
v\ hen a nurse generously concealed a royal infant, and offered her 
own to the executioner, Maurice was too rigidly honest not to reveal 
the deception. The tragic scene was closed with the execution of 
the emperor himself, who fell on the dead bodies of his children, 
wnat sufferings have not princes and their families been often called 
to sustam— sufferings far surpassing the common lot of men ! 

9. Phocas seated himself on the throne 602 A. C. His 
diaracter was despicable. His empire was ravaged by the 
Persians, and numerous seditions arose to disturb his peace. I 

At last, Herachus, governor of Africa, sent his son against J 

him with a fleet, which quickly arrived at Constantinople. 1 

1 he emperor, forsaken by his people, on whom he had inflict- 1 

ed all manner of cruelties, was soon beheaded, and his body 
was treated with the greatest indignity. 



76 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

§ The cruelty of Phocas towards the family of his predecessor 
knew no bounds. He finally caused the innocent empress, Constan- 
tina, and her three daughters, to be executed on the same spot where 
her husband and sons had suffered, three years before. 

10. Heraclius I., was crowned 610 A. C. His reign ex- 
tended several years into the next succeeding period. Tlie 
Persians ravaged his empire ; but terribly defeating them in 
six successive campaigns, he brought them to a peace. He 
reigned more than thirty years. 

During the last part of his reign, the foundation was laid of the 
caliphate of the Saracens, under the impostor Mahomet, whose his- 
tory will claim our attention at the beginning of the next period. 

KINGDOM OF ITALY. 

11. The kingdom which was established on the ruins of 
the Western Empire of the Romans, is sometimes called the 
KINGDOM OF ITALY. That countiy was held and governed, 
for the most part, by its northern conquerors, through the 
space of nearly three hundred years. During this time, 
however, there were several transfers of the sovereignty, fi-om 
one of the barbarous tribes to another. The Heruli, who 
conquered the country in 476, held it till 493. It then passed 
from their hands into the possession of the Goths, or Ostro- 
goths, who held it till the year 568, when the Lombards seiz- 
ed and concjuered the country. They were masters of the 
greatest portion of it, a little more than two centuries. The 
period of which we treat, will carry the history of Italy only 
through a part of the above named space of time. 

12. The kingdom of the Heruli in Italy, was of short con- 
tinuance. Odoacer, their king, reigned thirteen years without 
opposition ; but at the conclusion of that period, Theodoric, 
king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, and 
after a struggle of four years, defeated and slew Odoacer, 
usurping his dominions, 493 A. C. 

§ In the year 489, Theodoric twice overcame Odoacer in battle ; but 
being betrayed by one of his general officers, he retired to Pavia, 
where he was besieged by Odoacer. In his distress, Theodoric called 
in the assistance of the Visogoths, and gained a third victory in 490. 
Odoacer, shutting himself up in Ravenna, vigorously defended the 
place for three years. He was at last forced to enter into a treaty 
with Theodoric, and obtained a stipulation that his life should be 
spared. The Gothic monarch, however, perfidiously caused him ta 
be assassinated. 



KINGDOM OP ITALY. 77 

12. The kingdom of the Ostrogoths (eastern Goths) 
began, 493. Theodoric, (commonly siirnamed the great,) 
their king, was now acknowledged the sovereign of the coun- 
try, and fixed his residence at Ravenna. He was an Arian 
in principle, but protected the Catholics. He reigned about 
thirty-three years. His administration of government showed 
him to be an able prince. The people were probably bene- 
fitted by a change of masters. 

§ Theodoric, at the age of six years, was given as a hostage to Leo 
1. and remained thirteen years at Constantinople. He succeeded 
his lather ni Pannonia in 475. His success in his invasion of 
Italy, has already been mentioned. After a few years, his dominions 
consisted not only of Italy, and Sicily, but also of Dalmatia, 
JNoricum, the two Rhoetias, Pannonia, and Provence. The latter 
part of his reign was tarnished by cruelty and suspicion. In 
the indulgence of these propensities, he put to death the celebrated 
Boethms. 

13. The successors of Theodoric, in the Gothic kingdom 
of Italy, were seven in number. It was during the reign of 
several of these monarchs, that the events already related re- 
spectmg the invasion and conquest of Italy by Belisarius and 
Narses, occurred. The best known of the Gothic kings of 
this country are Theodotus, Vitiges, and Totila. After the 
death of Theias, the last of them, the Goths endeavoured, 
under several leaders, to re-estabhsh their dominions, but 
were subdued by the eunuch, Narses, who administered the 
government as duke, till 567 A. C. 

14. The kingdom of the Lombards followed, in 56S 
A. C. Alboin, king of this people, was invited into Italy by 
Narses, to avenge the insult he received from the emperor, 
Justin n., in his recall. Alboin penetrated into Italy, and 
was proclaimed its king at the date above mentioned'! He 
reigned but a short tune. 

§ His end was tragical, as it perhaps deserved to be. Having killed 
Cummund, king of the Gepida?, in a single combat, he married Ro- 
semond, that king's beautiful daughter, and made a drinking cup of 
her father's^ skull, out of which he obliged his queen to drink. She 
dissembled ner indignant feelings, but applied to two officers for re- 
venge. One of them had been affronted by the king, and the other 
she knew was enamoured of her person. These she admitted into 
the chamber where the king slept, who was immediately murdered, 
while she contrived to effect her escape to Ravenna. 

15. During the remainder of the present period, there 
were four kings, the successors of Alboin, but none of them 

7* 



78 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. 

were distinguished. An anarchy, of ten year's continuance 
took place after the death of one of the kings, during which 
Italy was governed by thirty dukes. 

§ Autharis, one of the kings, after his accession, in 584, confirmed 
the dukes in their authority, on condition of their paying him half 
of their revenues, and serving under his command in times of war, 
with troops levied within their respective jurisdictions. This is con- 
sidered by some, as the origin of the feudal system. 

PERSIA. 

16. Seven kings in succession, swayed the sceptre of 
Persia during this period. Of these, Chosroes II., the great, 
was the most conspicuous. During much of the time, the 
Persians were at war with the Romans. Sanguinary battles 
were fought, and provinces were taken and retaken. The 
Romans at last penetrated into Persia. 

§ Chosroes II. was a warrior. He repeatedly overcame the Roman 
generals, and was as often, perhaps, overcome. In one instance, 
however, he cut to pieces an army of 50,000. The Greek histo- 
rians, who probably exaggerate the matter, represent him as a fe- 
rocious monster. He doubtless had tlie vices of his predecessors, 
but surpassed them in great qualities. He reigned nearly fifty years. 

Chosroes III., son of Hormisdas, possessed the hateful character 
of a parricide. He caused his father to be beaten to death. He re- 
ceived, however, a terrible retribution, in the treatment he expe- 
rienced from his own son. Siroes, the eldest of his sons, having re- 
volted, and secured the kingdom, slew all his brothers in his father's 
presence, cast the latter into a prison, where he caused him to expire 
in insufferable torture, by being incessantly pricked with the points 
of arrows. 

Soon after the expiration of the present period, Persia was 
iiivaded by the Saracens, and it was not long before it be- 
came a part of the empire of the Cahphs. 

CHINA. 

17. In the histoiy of China during this period, we find 
four dynasties of its emperors, from the 9th to the 12th in- 
clusive. They were of short continuance, and included the 
reigns of seventeen sovereigns. Several of these appear to 
^ave been wise and virtuous men. In the reign of Yang-ti, 
in 605, many canals were cut through the empire, by which 
several rivers were united, and great facility given to com- 
merce. 

§ One of the sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty, is said to have had a 
very solid, penetrating mind. He loved his people, and did every 



SPAIN. /9 

thing in his power to promote their happiness. He built public 
granaries, which were every year filled with rice and corn, by the 
opulent, to be distributed among the poor in times of scarcity. He 
improved their music and eloquence. Against corrupt judges, he 
was always inexorable ; and excluded from all public employments, 
those whose rank in life did not render them respectable. 

SPAIN. 

Before the Empire of the West was finally subverted by the 
Northern Barbarians, some of the nations which once constituted it, 
had been lost to the empire. This was the case, particularly, with 
Spain and Britain. Italy, the seat of the empire, and according to 
the best accounts, France, may date their separate existence, only 
from the annihilation of the Roman power. After that event, these 
several nations, and indeed ail the rest of western Europe, were de- 
tached from one another, and held by the native inhabitants, or go- 
verned by different tribes of the barbarians of the north. We must 
therefore consider them in their separate sovereignties, according to 
the eras in which they began to exist independently. We begin 
with Spain. 

18. Spain, while constituting a portion of the Roman 
empire, was invaded by the Suevi, the Alains, and the Van- 
dals, b.bout 406 years A. C, and mostly subdued by these bar- 
barous tribes. ExpeUing the Romans, they divided the 
country, a part of which, viz. Vandalasia, or Andalusia, still 
bears the name of one of these tribes, (the Vandals.) 

The Alains, in 418, were mostly exterminated by the Os- 
trogoths. The Suevi remained in the possession of the coun- 
try, under a succession of their kings, till the year 585. The 
Vandals had early, viz. in 427, passed into Africa, and settled 
there, upon the invitation of Count Boniface. 

The Visogoths, ^who entered Spain in 531, conquered the 
greatest part of the country by the year 585, and erected a 
monarchy, which existed till 712, when they were subdued by 
the Saracens, or Moors. 

§ Spain was anciently called Hesperia or Western, on account of its 
situation, as being the extreme west known to the ancients. It was 
called also Iberia, from the river Iber, now the Ebro. The name 
Hispania, or Spain, is said to be derived from a Phoenician word, 
Sphavisa, which means, abounding with rabbits ; these animals, ac- 
cording to Strabo, being very numerous in Spain. 

Its original inhabitants were Celtes, of the same race with those 
of France, and who passed over from that country into Spain. The 
fertility of the soil, induced the Phcenicians, who were the earliest 
navigators, to open a trade with Spain, and they built the city of 
Gades, now Cadiz. This was about 900 years B. C. 



80 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

This country has been often conquered, both in ancient and more 
modern times. About 500 years B. C, it was in part subjugated by 
the Carthaginians, who held their conquest three centuries. The 
Romans then succeeded as masters, in whose power it remained six 
hundred years. From the Romans, as we have already learned, it 
was wrested by the northern barbarians. These, as we shall see, in 
the next Period, are destined to be displaced by the followers of 
Mahomet. 

It is deemed unnecessary to detail any events under the kings of 
the barbarous tribes who governed Spain, as they possess scarcely 
any interest. Euric may be considered as the founder of the Gothic 
monarchy of this country. 

FRANCE. 

19. France, anciently called Gaul, immediately previous 
to the dissolution of the Roman Empire of the West, was di- 
vided between the Romans, Visogoths, Franks, and Burgun- 
dians. A few years after that event, viz. 581 A. C, Clovis, 
king of the Franks, obtained, by degrees, possession of the 
country. He is therefore considered the true founder of the 
French monarchy, as before him, the Franks held only a few 
provinces on the right bank of the Rhine. From this people, 
ancient Gaul, obtained the name of France. The kings who 
have reigned in France, seem to be divided mto four dynas- 
ties, viz. the Merovingian, the Carlovingian, the Capetian, and 
the Bourbon. The race of which we are now speaking, the 
first in order, derived its name from Merovoeus, the grand- 
father of Clovis, who reigned over that portion of the Franks, 
who had obtained, in some former age, a settlement in the 
country. The Merovingian dynasty continued till 75'Z. 

§ The Franks were supposed to have been of. German origin, aad 
to have inhabited the country between the Rhine and the Weser, 
which now forms part of Holland and Westphalia. Some believe 
them to have consisted of a mixed multitude of various tribes, living 
' beyond the Rhine, who, when Germany was invaded by the Romans, 
united i>:i defence of their common liberty, and styled themselves 
Franks, i. e. free men. Of the clans into which they were divided, 
the Salii, and Ansuarii, were the most considerable. Between the 
years 234 and 254, they made an irruption into Gaul, but were sig- 
nally overthrown by the Romans under Aurelian, then a military 
tribune. They finally obtained a footing in that country, about the 
year 264 A. C. 

Succeeding this event, they had many contentions with the Romans, 
in which they often conquered, and were, oftener, perhaps, defeated. 
By the time, however, in which the emperor Constans reigned, they 
were generally at peace with the Romans, and several of them en- 



ENGLAND. 81 

joyed places of distinction in the armies and at court. The petty 
sovereigns who preceded Clovis, were Pharamond, who made the last 
settlement of the Franks in Gaul, Clodio, Merovceus, and Childeric I. 

Clovis made many conquests : first over the Romans in the battlte 
of Soissons ; then over tlie king of Thuringia, who had invaded his 
dominions ; afterwards over the Germans in the battle of Tolbiac ; 
and finally over the Visogoths under Alaric, when he subdued all the 
south of Gaul. In his contest with the Germans, 496 A. C, he in^ 
voked the God of Clotilda, a Christian princess, whom he had mar- 
ried three years before. In consequence of his victory, he became 
professedly a believer, and together with three thousand of his sub- 
jects, was baptised on Christmas-day, the same year. 

About thirteen years afterwards, he cruelly murdered most of his 
relatives, which shewed how little influence Christianity had over 
him. Clovis made Paris the seat of his kingdom. He died, 511. 

Clovis was followed by a series of obscure kings, through 
the remainder of this period. They need not, therefore, be 
mentioned particularly. They were, in general, weak and 
\vicked, and plunged the nation into deeper barbarism than 
it was under during the Roman dominion. 

ENGLAND. 

20. England, whose ancient name was Britain, had been 
abandoned by the Romans fifty years, when the Empire of the 
West was subverted. In the mean time, the inhabitants, who 
were left defenceless, suffered from the encroachments of their 
northern neighbours, the Picts and Scots, and in their distress, 
sohcited several of the warlike tribes of the continent, for assist- 
ance. The Jutes first arrived for that purpose. These were 
soon followed by the Angles and Saxons, in 451, from the 
shores of the Baltic. The object was soon accomplished, for 
which the Britons had invited them into their country. Their 
enemy was repulsed ; but they found a more formidable ene- 
my in their protectors themselves. 

The Saxons, procuring large reinforcements from Germany, 
turned their arms against the Britons, and took possession of 
the country. It was not, however, without a long and severe 
struggle, of nearly one hundred and fifty years, that this con- 
quest was achieved. The result Avas, the establishment of 
seven distinct states, or sovereignties, which were governed, 
more than two hundred years, by their respective kings. 
These states are usually called the Heptarchy. 

§ The island of Britain, before it was known to the Romans, was 
inhabited by a very rude and uncivilized people. They were either 



% 



82 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

naked, or clothed only with the sldns of beasts, having their bodies 
pauited with various colours. Hence is supposed to be the origin 
of the name, Britain, which is derived from a British word, brit, sig- 
nifying painted The name England was given to the country, from 

!u a}T^^\^ ^"^^ ^^ ^^^^^ continental nations, who conquered it in 
the fifth and sixth centuries. 

The island was originally settled, in all probability, by a colony 
from Gaul, who were called Celtes or Gaels, the remains of whom 
are chiefly in Wales, in the highlands of Scotland, and in the north 
ot Ireland. The period of their settlement is quite uncertain. The 
Phoenicians, indeed, traded very early with the inhabitants of Corn- 
wall, for copper and tin, but they were unacquainted with the inte- 
rior of the country. The Romans have given us the earliest authen- 
tic information respecting it. This commences with the first inva- 
sion by Julius Caesar, 55 B. C. 

Ccesar began the dominion of the Romans in Britain: but the 
island was subdued, only by degrees, under the Roman leaders who 
succeeded him. Forty-three years A. C, it was again invaded by 
the emperor Claudius, whose general, Ostorius, defeated Caractacus, 
king of the Britons, took him prisoner, and sent him to Rome, in 51. 
In the reign of Nero, 61 A. C, Suetonius defeated Boadicea, queen of 
the Icem, (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk,) slaying 80,000 men 
m a single battle. Boadicea, however, had previously obtained 
several victories over the Romans, by her gallant conduct. She com- 
mitted suicide, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror. 

Agricola, who governed Britain in the reigns of Titus, Vespasian 
and Domitian, formed a regular plan for subduing the whole island 
and rendering the acquisition advantageous to the conquerors. For 
this purpose he penetrated into Caledonia, (Scotland,) defeated the 
natives in various encounters, and established a chain of forts be- 
tween the Friths of Clyde and Forth. 

Subduing most of the island, he soon diffused among the Britons a 
knowledge of the arts of peace. He introduced among them, laws 
and government; taught them to value the conveniences of life 
and reconciled them to the language and manners of their masters. ' 
io7l^^'^^^^^ ^^^^ southern inhabitants against the Scots, Adrian in 
121, built a wall in the north part of Britain, between the river 
lyne, and the Frith of Solway. This was afterwards strengthened 
with new fortifications, by Severus, in 208. From this period, till 
the abandonment of Britain by the Romans, in 426, the inhabitants 
enjoyed uninterrupted tranquillity. 

As has been already mentioned, the Romanized Britons, when left by 
their masters, were thrown into a defenceless state. Their long peace 
had somewhat enervated them, and they were unable to resist the 
attacks of their barbarous neighbours on the north. It was Vorti- 
gern, one of their kings, who invited the German tribes to his pro- 
tection. The latter gladly availed themselves of the opportunity to 
visit a country long known to them in their piratical voyages to its 
coasts. Hengist and Horsa, two brothers, were their leaders on this 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. S3 

occasion, and with only 1600 warriors, in conjunction with the 
South Britons, they compelled the Scots to retire to their mountains. 
After the Saxons, from being the protectors, had become the con- 
querors of Britain, and founded the Heptarchy, history records 
nothing that is very interesting respecting them, until the time of 
Egbert the Great, who became sole king of England, in 827. We 
may therefore pass over the English history, until that period, only 
remarking that the Saxons, who were partially acquainted with 
Christianity before, were more fully converted to the faith, by the 
labours of the monk Augustin, in 597. 

Distinguished Characters in Period IIL 

1. Proclus, a learned Platonist and unbeliever. 

2. Boelhius, a Roman poet, and Platonic philospher. 

3. Procopius, a Roman historian — sometimes denominated 
the last of the classic writers. 

4. Cassiodorus, the historian of Ravenna, and tutor to 
Theodoric, the Gothic king. 

5. BeUsarius, an heroic and successful general of Jus- 
tinian. 

6. Gildas, the most ancient British writer extant. 

1. Proclus was born at Constantinople, in 410, and died in 485 
A. C. He was a philospher among the later Platonists. In the 
chair of the academy, he taught philosophy with great reputation. 
Such was his industry, that frequently, in the same day, he pro- 
nounced five lessons, and composed seven hundred lines. " His sa- 
gacious mind," says Gibbon, " explored the deepest questions of 
morals and metaphysics, and he ventured to urge eighteen argu- 
ments against the Christian doctrine of the creation of the world.** 
This, as might have been expected, proved to be labour in vain. 
The foundations of truth can be overturned by no human sagacity, 
however great. 

2. Boethius, who was distinguished both as a poetic and prose 
writer, was descended from one of the noblest families of Rome. 
In consequence of having remonstrated, with great spirit, against the 
tyranny of Theodoric, he was beheaded in prison, by the command 
of that king, in 524. Boethius wrote many philosophical workss 
the greater part according to the manner of the logicians ; but his 
ethic composition, concerning the " Consolation of Philosophy,** 
is his chief performance, and has always been justly admired, 
both in respect to the matter and the style. Mr. Harris, in his 
" Hermes," observes, that, " with Boethius, the last remains of Ro- 
man dignity may be said to have sunk in the western world :" and 
Mosheim testifies, that he " shone with the brightest lustre, as a 
philosopher, an orator, a poet, and a divine ; and, both in elegance 
and subtilty of genius, had no equal in the sixth century." 

3. Procopius belonged to Caesarea, in Palestine, and flourished m 
534. He was secretary to Belisarius, whom he greatly celebrated 



84 MODtmN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

in his History of the Reign of Justinian. This history is dividefl 
into eight books ; two of which give an account of the Persian war, 
two of the Vandals, and four of the Goths, to the year 553 ; which 
was afterwards continued in five books, by AgaUhias, till 559. 1 he 
historian is thought to be too severe upon the emperor, though his 
performance, in other respects, has a high character. Some con- 
sider him as the last of the Roman classic authors. 

4 Cassiodorus was a man of eminence, in many respects, and 
called by way of distinction, " the senator." He united the states- 
man and author in his character. He was born in Italy, about 463, 
and died at near one hundred years of age. His writings relate 
chiefly to history, theology, and criticism. He was inferior m abili- 
ties to Boethius, but still was very respectable. 

5. Belisarius was truly a Roman in spirit, and the greatest gene- 
ral of his age. His life and exploits have been already told as, as 
particularly as this work will admit. In a degenerate and effemi- 
nate acre, he put forth an energy, and acquired a fame in war, which 
would°bear a comparison with the first leaders of the most favoured 
days of the republic. He was, however, as distinguished by his 
misfortunes as he was by his victories, owing to the ingratitude of 
Justinian; and he spent his last days, it is said, under the frown of 
his master, and, as some report, in actual want. 

6. Gildas was a native of Wales. He was surnamed. The Wise. 
As the most ancient of the British writers, he deserves a notrce 
here. His famous " Epistle," was written A. C. 560, and is a most 
severe censure of the depravity of the Britons at that time. He 
has some things well calculated to invite the attention of the learned. 

PERIOD IV. 

The Pei'iod of the establishment of the Saracen Donii- 
nimi; extending from the flight of Mahomet, 622 years 
A. C. to the crotming of Charlemagne, at Rome, SOO 
yeai^s A. C. 

ARABS OR SARACENS. 
DurintT this period, the darkness in Europe very much increased, and 
the times exhibited a melancholy contrast to the former splendid 
eras of Grecian and Roman refinement and literature. But while 
the human mind sunk in Europe, it rose in the East, under the 
auspices of the Saracens, where it was for a short time displayed, 
not only in the energies of a warlike superstition, but, at length, m 
the cultivation of the arts and learning. The history of this people is 
connected with a remarkable change in the aspect of human affairs. 
Sec. 1. The Arabs, in all ages, have Uved as wander> 
ers, in a stale of independence, and have never been sub- 
dued by any of the great conquerors of the world, though al- 
most always at war with their neighbours. They derive 



ARABS OR SARACENS. 85 

their origin from Ishmael, and, before the time of Mahomet, 
they professed a religion which was a mixture of idolatry and 
Judaism. 

The name Saracen, which w^as at lengtli applied to most 
of the Arabian nations, is derived from a tribe that occupied 
the north-western part of the country. This people, before 
the time already referred to, had forsaken their deserts, and 
made themselves useful or formidable (according as their ser- 
vices were purchased or neglected) to the respective empires 
of Rome and Persia. 

Mecca, on the Red Sea, in 569, gave birth to Mahomet, 
(or Mohommed,) their pretended prophet. In 609, when lie 
was about 40 years old, he began to concert a system of mea- 
sures, the issue of which, was the establishment of a new re- 
ligion in the world, and of an empire, which, spreading over 
many countries, lasted more than six centuries. The reli- 
gion still remains. 

His impostures were not, at first, well received. The citi- 
zens of Mecca, even, opposed them. Forsaking his native 
city, where his hfe was in jeopardy, he fled to Medina, at the 
epoch called by the Mahometans, the hegira, or llight, which 
was in the year 622, and the 54th year of Mahomet's age. 
By the aid of his disciples at Medina, he returned to Mecca 
as a conqueror, and makhig numerous proselytes, he soon 
became master of Arabia and Syria, was saluted king in 627, 
and, in the midst of his successes, died suddenly in 632. He 
left two branches of his family, who became powerful caliphs 
of Persia and Egypt. 

§ As Mahomet will be spoken of again, as one of the distinguished 
characters of this period, it will be unnecessary to add many par- 
ticulars here, respecting either his life, or the religion of which he 
was the founder. Some historians are of the opinion, that he at- 
tempted only an inconsiderable change in the creed of his coun- 
trymen, and" that the mighty revolution which followed his eiforts, 
was, in respect to Arabia, almost wholly political. 

In his flight, this bold leader gained Medina with much difficulty, 
but being well received, he made it the place of his future residence. 
Besides those who fled with him, and shared his fate, he was soon 
followed and joined by many of the principal citizens of Mecca. 
Amongst his followers were Amrou, the future conqueror of Egypt ; 
Saad, who afterwards overran Persia ; Obeidah, whose fortune it 
was to subdue Syria and Palestine ; and the very celebrated Kaled 
Eben al Walid. 

8 



86 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. 

Though Mahomet met with some reverses at first, he was no 
sooner aided by such men as Amrou and Kaled, than he overthrew 
whatever opposed him. After the submission of Arabia to his arms, 
the Arabs and Greeks were brought into contact ; and the former 
were prepared to encroach on the remnant of the Roman empire. 

Mahomet owed his success, in part, to several moral causes, origi- 
nating in the state of society ; such as the corruption of the true re- 
ligion, the ignorance of mankind, and the prevailing hcentiousness 
of the times — also to the nature of his doctrines, which, among other 
things, promising a sensual heaven, were suited to the depravity of 
the heart, and the taste of the voluptuous Asiatics ; and, not least of 
all, to powerful political revolutions. It happened the same year in 
which Mahomet left Mecca, that a destructive war, as already men- 
tioned, took place between the Eastern empire and Persia. Hera- 
clius, the emperor, in six campaigns, penetrated to the heart of the 
Persian dominions, almost destroying that power, and greatly weak- 
ening his own. Neither of them, therefore, were in a condition to 
resist the torrent of Arabian fanaticism. Such was the prospect of 
Mahometanism, when its author met his fate. 

The followers of this impostor, term their religion Islam, 
and themselves Musslemen, or Moslems, i. e. true believers. 
The book containing their creed, which was produced by 
Mahomet, in successive portions, and which he pretended to 
derive from the angel Gabriel, is called the Koran. Their 
priests are called moolahs or imans. Mahomet propagated 
his religion by the sword, and taught, that to profess any 
other religion, was a just cause of hatred, and even of murder. 

2. The successors of Mahomet, in the dominion which he 
established, are called Caliphs, a word which means suc- 
cessors, or vicars. The first cahph was Abu-beker, the fa- 
ther of one of the wives of Mahomet. It is said that the im- 
postor, on his death-bed, appointed Ah, his son-in-law, as his 
successor, but the influence of Abu-beker with the army was 
such, that he, by this means, secured the caliphate. 

Thus the fomidation was laid for a mighty contention, 
and over the body of Mahomet arose that schism, which, at 
this distant period, weakens the power of Mahometanism, and 
may eventually terminate its very existence. The sects are 
two, and the ground of dispute is the right of succession to 
Mahomet. Their names are Sheas or Shiites, and the Son- 
nites. The Sheas, who believe in Ali, as the true successor, 
are chiefly Persians. The Sonnites, who believe in Abu- 
beker, consist of the inhabitants of East Persia, Arabia, Tur- 



ARABS OR SARACENS. 87 

key, &c. The Sonnites receive the Koran only, whereas the 
Sheas adopt the traditions also. 

In respect to conquest, Abu-beker pursued the course of 
Mahomet, and, with the aid of his general, Kaled, obtained 
an important victory over the emperor HeracUus, and en- 
larged the Saracen dominion. He died in the third year of 
his reign, having bequeathed the sceptre to Omar. 

§ When the sceptre was offered to Omar, he modestly observed, 
" that he had no occasion for the place." " But the place has occa- 
sion for you," replied Abu-beker. He died, praying that the God of 
Mahomet would ratify his choice. It was so far regarded by Ali, 
his rival, that the latter treated him with the respect due to a consti- 
tuted superior. 

Omar commenced his reign in 633. In one campaign he 
wrested from the Greek empire, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopo- 
tamia, and Chaldea. In the next campaign, the whole em- 
pire of Persia was brought under the Mahometan yoke. 
Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia, were at the same time con- 
quered by the generals of Omar. 

§ Amrou, one of his generals, by the order of Omar, destroyed the 
famous hbrary at Alexandria, consisting of 700,000 volumes. The 
order of Omar betrayed the ignorance of a savage, and the illibera- 
lity of a fanatic. " If," said he to Amrou, " these writings agree 
with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved ; if 
they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Omar 
was finally assassinated. 

Othman succeeded Omar, in 645. He added Bactriana, 
and a part of Tartary, to the Saracen empire. Upon the 
death of Othman, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was elect- 
ed to the caliphate. His name is still revered in the east, and 
by none of the caliphs Avas he excelled, either in virtue or 
courage. After a short but glorious reign of five years, he 
was assassinated by a Mahometan enthusiast, or reformer. He 
had removed the seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Cuja, on 
the Euphrates. 

§Ali married Fatema, the daughter of Mahomet, but Ayesha, the 
widow of the prophet, and daughter of Abu-beker, bore an immortal 
hatred against the husband and posterity of Fatema. In a battle 
which Ali fought with a superior number of rebels, who were ani- 
mated by the counsels of Ayesha, he was entirely victorious. 
Ayesha, it is said, had seventy men, who held the bridle of her 
camel, successively killed or wounded ; and the cage or litter in 
which she sat, was stuck throughout with javehns and darts. 

3. Within less than half a century, the Saracens reared a 



S8 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV, 

powerful empire, and were formidable to all the nations 
around them. In 100 years, their dominion extended from 
India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia 
Minor, Arabia, and other regions in the east, as also Egypt, 
North Africa, and Spain. 

Of the race of Omar, already mentioned, there were nine- 
teen caliphs who reigned in succession : after which, began 
the dynasty of the Abassidse, descended from Abbas, the 
uncle of Mahomet. Almansor, second caliph of this race, 
built Bagdad, and made it the seat of the Saracen dominion, 
in 762 A. C. He introduced the culture of the arts and sci- 
ences among the Saracens. 

§ It was during the reign of Alrnansor, that Abu Hanifa, the 
founder of the first of the four sects of the Sonnites, died in prison at 
Bagdad. He had -been confined there for refusing to be made a 
judge, declaring that he had ratlier be punished by men than by 
God. Being asked why lie declined the office, he replied, " If I 
speak the truth., I am mifit ; but if I tell a lie, a liar is not fit to be a 
judge." It is said that he read over the Koran 7000 times, while he 
was in prison. 

Haroun al Raschid, a caliph who ascended the throne in 
785 A. C, and was contemporary Avith Charlemagne, was a 
famous prince, and celebrated patron of letters. His reign is 
regarded as the Augustan age of Saracen hterature. Many 
of our proverbs and romances are to be referred to this period. 
Al Raschid was also a brave and victorious sovereign, and 
distinguished by equity and benevolence. He died in about 
809 A. C. 

The sciences to which the Arabians chiefly devoted their 
attention, were medicme, geometry, and astronom)^ Poetry, 
and works of fiction, especially the One Thousand and One 
isig]its,were the products of that period. Literature was cul- 
tivated also in Africa and Spain, under the auspices of the 
Saracens. 

§ Soon after Al Raschid's accession to the Caliphate, he invaded 
and ravaged a part of the Greek empire, with an army of 135,000 
men. Having taken the city of Heraclea, he reduced it to ashes ; 
after which conquest he made himself master of several other places. 
He then attacked the Island of Cyprus, whose inhabitants suffered 
extremely from the invasion. The Greek emperor was so intimi- 
dated by this success, that he immediately made peace with the 
caliph, accompanied witli a tribute. 

Several interesting anecdotes are related of this caliph, two of 
wliich follow. Being once in Egypt, he said to his courtiers, 



EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 89 

" The king of this country formerly boasted himself to be God ; in 
consequence, therefore, of such pride, I will confer the government 
of it on the meanest of my slaves." 

As he was marching one day at the head of his troops, a woman 
came to him to complain that some of the soldiers had pillaged her 
house. He said, " woman, hast thou not read in the Koran, that 
princes, when they passed with their armies through places, de- 
stroyed them ?" " True," replied she, " but then it is also written in 
the same book, that the houses of those princes shall be desolate on 
account of their acts of injustice." This fearless repartee, was so 
well liked by the caliph, that he forthwith ordered that restitution 
should be made. 

EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 

4. The Eastern Empire, which had alone survived the 
ruin of the Roman world, retained a portion of its ancient 
splendour. It was destined, however, soon to lose several 
valuable provinces, as has already appeared, in relating the 
victorious career of the Saracens. The conquests which 
Heraclius I. made in Persia, were wrested from him by that 
enthusiastic and warring people. They next deprived the 
empire of its Syrian and African dependencies. 

During these events, several emperors successively filled 
the throne of Constantinople, after Heraclius. But very 
little need be said concerning any of them. It was in the 
reign of Constantine III., Pagonatus, that the Saracens, 672 
A. C. besieged Constantinople for five months, but were 
obliged to retire. They returned for seven years in succes- 
sion, but were every time defeated by Callinicus, who in- 
vented an inextinguishable fire, by which he destroyed their 
ships. 

§ The Greek, or hquidfire, was made principally of naptha, or liquid 
bitumen, mixed with some sulphur and pitch, extracted from green 
firs. Water, instead of extinguishing, quickened this powerful 
agent of destruction. It could be damped only by sand, wine, or 
vinegar. It was a period of four hundred years, before the secret of 
its composition was obtained from the Greeks. The Mahometans at 
length discovered and stole it. It continued to be used in war, down 
to the middle of the fom'teenth century, when gunpowder was in- 
troduced. 

Justinian II., who succeeded Constantine in 685, was a 
second Nero, or Cahgula. He ordered, at one tune, a general 
slaughter of the inhabitants of Constantinople, but he was de- 
throned the same day, and sent into exile with mutilated 

8* 



90 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. 

features. He recovered his throne by the assistance of the 
Bulgarians, and exacted a dreadful vengeance on his ene- 
mies. He was at last beheaded. Some of the emperors who 
followed during the remainder of this period, were, Leo HI., 
Constantine IV., Leo IV., and Constantine V. The first three 
of these were strongly opposed to images, as used in churches. 

§ The mother of the last Constantine, was regent during her son's 
minority. Her name was Irene, and she proved herself a monster 
of wickedness. She obliged the sons of Constantine IV. to receive 
the priesthood, and afterwards ordered them to be murdered. She 
was singularly cruel towards her own son, who, for attempting to 
govern by himself when of age, was, by her orders, scourged and 
confined in the interior of the palace. In 790, he was restored to 
liberty by the people, when he, in his turn, imprisoned his mother. 

Two years after, she was apparently reconciled to Constantine. 
and by encouraging him in his vices, obtained an unhappy ascend- 
ency over him. Being rendered odious to his subjects, especially 
in consequence of repudiating his queen and marrying one of her 
women, by the advice of Irene, an insurrection took place. This 
was as she expected ; and afforded a pretext for her cruel machina- 
tions. Being left with the army in By thinia, she despatched several 
officers to depose her son. 

Arriving at Constantinople without being suspected of such a 
design, they put out the emperor's eyes in so barbarous a manner, 
that he died, three days afterwards, in the most excruciating pain. 
Irene then remained in possession of the empire for five years ; and 
in order to confirm her authority, she made overtures of marriage to 
Charlemagne, king of France. Her design, however, being di- 
vulged, a revolt ensued, in which Nicephorus, great treasurer of the 
empire, being leader, was proclaimed, and Irene deposed. 

Having thus obtained the purple, and secured the riches of Irene, 
Nicephorus banished her to the isle of Lesbos, where the want of a 
decent provision obliged her to earn a scanty subsistence by the la- 
bours of the distaff. Here this miserable woman died of vexation, 
having enjoyed her ill-gotten power but six years after the murder 
of her son. 

KINGDOM OF ITALY. 

5. The Kingdom of Italy, which was formed as 
already related, continued until nearly the close of the pre- 
sent period, viz. 774 A. C. It had been fifty years under 
the sway of the Lombard kings. During the remainder of 
its existence, (viz. 150 years,) seventeen kings reigned over 
the country. The principal of these were Cunibert, Luit- 
prand, Rachisius, Astolphus, and Desiderius or Didier, 
Luitprand possessed the greatest talents of all the Lombard 



KINGDOM OF ITALY. 91 

kings. Under Didier the kingdom of Italy came to an end. 
He was defeated by Charlemagne, his father-in-law, and 
Italy was afterwards incorporated into the new empire of the 
West. 

§ A few particulars concerning these kings, are as follows. Under 
Cunibert, Italy was invaded by the duke of Brescia, and they met 
in battle on the banks of the Adda. Before the battle, a deacon of Pa- 
via, named Zeno, who bore a great likeness to Cunibert, offered to 
take his armour and supply his place at the head of the army. 
Zeno was consequently killed, and Cunibert obtained a signal vic- 
tory, and afterwards enjoyed a peaceable and happy reign. 

Luitprand availed himself of an opportunity, soon after the com- 
mencement of his reign, to add to his dominions by conquest. His 
first efforts were directed against Ravenna, which was betrayed into 
his hands. He afterwards took several other cities. The next year, 
however, Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, reconquered a great pari 
of his dominions, with the help of the Venetians, whom Pope Gre- 
gory n. excited against Luitprand. 

The king, resolving to avenge himself on the Pope, became re- 
conciled to Eutycliius, and they both advanced towards Rome. The 
Pope, however, met the king, and appeased him by his eloquence. 
In two successive instances, in his attempts upon the Pope and Rome, 
he was diverted from his design. 

Rachisius, in 749, five years after the commencement of his 
reign, under the pretence of some infractions of a treaty with the 
people of Rome, besieged a city which belonged to the Pope. But 
the Pope had such influence with him when they met, that the king 
was persuaded to renounce the world, and retire to the abbey of 
Monte Cassino. His queen and daughter, at the same time, founded 
a monastery of nuns, near that abbey, whither they retired and took 
the veil. 

Astolphus took Ravenna, and seized upon all the dependencies of 
that principality, not far from the year 750, but soon lost them, by 
the intervention of Pepin, king of France, who made war upon him. 
He died in 756, of a fall from his horse. 

Didier, meditating the conquest of Ravenna, sought the protec- 
tion of the French King, by marrying one of his daughters to 
Charlemagne, and the other to his brother Carloman. A difference, 
however, having arisen between Charlemagne and his father-in-law, 
the French monarch divorced his wife. Didier highly resented this 
act. 

Applying to the Pope to favour his projects, and failing in the at- 
tempt, he attacked the papal territory, and endeavoured to seize on 
the person of the Roman pontiff. Charlemagne, however, coming 
seasonably to his assistance, met the Lombard king in battle, and 
taking possession of his sovereignty, sent the royal family to be con- 
fined in monasteries in France.' The French king thus put an end 
to the Lombard dominion in Italy, and was himself declared, by the 
Pope, king of Italy, and patrician of Rome. 



;92 MODERN HISTOPwY. — PERIOD IV. 

SPAIN. 

6. Spain continued under the dominion of the Visogoths 
till the year 712. It was then conquered by the Saracens, 
wlio invaded the country from Mauritania, in Africa, whence 
they were called Moors. A small part of the north of Spain, 
never fell under the dominion of that people. Pelagius, the 
successor of the Gothic sovereigns, founded there the little 
kingdom of Asturias, in 718 ; and Garcias Ximenes, that of 
Navarre, in 758. 

§ The Saracens, in their descent upon Spain, easily overran the 
country. They had lately founded, in Africa, the empire of Mo- 
rocco, which was governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Waled 
Almansor. Muza sent his general. Tariff, into Spain, who attack- 
ing Don Rodrigo, or Roderic, the Gothic king, in a decisive battle, 
overcame and slew him. The conquerors succeeded to the sove- 
reignty. Abdallah, son of Muza, married the widow of Roderic, and 
thus tlie two nations formed a perfect union. 

7. Spain, in this manner conquered by the Saracens, was 
allotted to governors dependent on the viceroy of Africa, till 
A])da]rahman, the last heir of the family of the Omiades, 
formed it into an independent kingdom, and fixed his resi- 
dence at Cordova. This was about the year 756 A. C. 

It may be remarked here, that all that part of the kingdom 
of Spain which was under the dominion of the Moors, em- 
braced the religion of their conquerors ; but the two northern 
provinces above named, remained true to the Christian faith. 

Abdalrahman, at Cordova, laid the foundation of a flour- 
ishing empire, which lasted for a considerable period. He 
greatly encouraged learning, and thus vied with Haroun Al 
Raschid at Bagdad, as a patron of letters. Cordova became 
renowned as one of the most enlightened spots in Europe, 
under several succeeding reigns. 

§ The part of Spain which remained independent of the Moorish 
yoke, presents little that is important in its history. We may there- 
fore pass it over with the remark, that its Christian sovereigns be- 
came rather strengthened than weakened in their power from time 
to time. 

FRANCE. 

8. In France, the weak race of the Merovingian kings 
continued to hold the sovereignty, till the year 751 A. C. 
On the death of one of them, viz, Dagobert II., (638) who 
left two infant sons, the government, during their minority, 
was assumed by their chief ofiicers, termed Mayors of the 



FRANCE. 93 

Palace. Under the management of these ambitious men, 
the kings of France enjoyed Kttie more than the name. 

In the time of Thierry, grandson of Dagobert II., the ce- 
lebrated Pepin d'Heristel was mayor of the palace. He re- 
stricted Thierry, nominally the sovereign of the two great 
divisions of the Frank monarchy, (Austrasia and Neustria) 
to a small domain, and ruled France during thirty years with 
great wisdom. 

The son of Pepin, whose name was Charles Martel, was 
still more celebrated than his father. Under three kings, he 
governed France with signal ability, having succeeded to tlie 
office of mayor of the Palace. 

§ After his father Pepin's death, Charles was confined by his mo- 
ther-in-law, in prison. But escaping thence, he was proclaimed duke 
of Austrasia, and took possession of the sovereign authority over all 
the kingdom. He made war several times on Childeric, his first 
nominal sovereign, and finally secured him as a prisoner. 

9. Charles was victorious over all his domestic foes, and 
liis arms kept in awe the neighbouring nations, whom he fre- 
quently defeated. But the most signal service which he ren- 
dered to France, to Europe, and to mankind at large, was 
his victory over the Saracens, in 732 A. C. These destroying 
fanatics threatened all Europe with subjugation to the Maho- 
metan dominion and reUgion ; and, but for their providential 
defeat by Charles Martel, might have been, to this day, the 
masters of the civilized world. 

§ The Saracens penetrated into France from Spain. They were led 
by Abderame, a consummate general, who commanded in the name 
of the caliph, and who soon defeated the duke of Aquitain. After 
this victory, his desperate bands were about to overrun the king- 
dom. Here, however, the genius and bravery of Charles rescued 
the nation from destruction. He brought them to a general action 
between Poictiers and Tours, and notwithstanding their bravery 
and numbers, he succeeded in defeating them with immense slaugh- 
ter. They afterwards rallied in the vicinity of Narbonne, but w^ere 
again defeated, and at last driven out of the French territory. 

By this event, the terror with which the Saracens had inspired 
Europe was greatly diminished, and Charles obtained for himself 
the surname of Martel, or the Hammer. 

After the death of Thierry IV., Charles, without placing 
another king on the throne, continued to govern as before, 
with the title of duke of France. After several more victo- 
ries over his enemies, Charles dying, bequeathed the govern- 
ment of France, as an undisputed inheritance, to his two sons 



94 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

Pepin le Bref, and Carloman. As mayors of the palace, the 
one governed Austrasia, and the other Neustria and Burgun- 
dy. The nominal sovereign, at this time, was Childeric III., 
a weak and insignificant prince. The sole administration 
devolved at length on Pepin, as Carloman renounced the world 
and became a monk. Pepin, whose talents were powerful, 
and whose turn of mind was warhke, governed with great 
efficiency, and conquered several of the neighbouring tribes. 
In the year 751, he assembled a parliament at Soissons, 
where he was proclaimed king of France, having first obtain- 
ed the sanction of Pope Zachary. Childeric was confined in 
a convent, and thus ended the Merovingian race of kings. 
The Carlovingian now succeeded. 

§ Pepin was called Le Bref, or the short, on account of the lowness 
of his stature, his height being only four and a half feet. Soon after 
he was crowned, he marched against the revolted Saxons, whom he 
defeated j and pursuing his brother Grippo into Aquitain, he united 
Septimia, now Languedoc, to the crown. His brother, who was a 
turbulent spirit, and gave him disquiet, at length perished. Pepin 
was thus left to pursue without molestation his useful designs. 

10. Having been crowned the second time, by Pope Ste- 
phen II., in return for this service, Pepin marched agaicstthe 
Lombards, who had invaded the principality of Ravenna, and 
thre<itened Rome itself. The Lombards were spared, only 
by the surrender of Ravenna, which Pepin bestowed on the 
Holy See. Thus commenced the temporal authority of the 
popes. 

The Saracens, who still possessed a part of the south of 
France, were forced by his arms from the country, and thus 
tlie limits of his dominions were extended in that quarter. 
After a splendid and successful reign, he died of a dropsy in 
the chest, at the age of fifty-three or fifty -four years, 768 A. C. 
§ It is related of this monarch, that his diminutive size was compen- 
sated by an uncommon strength of body. Having been told that 
several of his courtiers had secretly ridiculed his personal appear- 
ance, he invited them, on the next day, to attend the spectacle of a 
fight between a lion and a bull. \Vlien the two combatants M'ere let 
loose, the lion leaped on his adversary, and the bull was in danger 
of instant destruction. " Is there any among you," exclaimed the 
king to the courtiers that surrounded him, " who has sufficient re- 
solution to oblige the hon to let go his hold ?" No one spake. 
'• Mine, then, shall be the task," said Pepin, elevating his voice : and 
leaping into the amphitheatre with a drawn sword, he approached 
the lion, and with a single blow separated the head from the body. 

11. The dominions of Pepin were, at his death, divided 



FRANCE. 95 

between liis two son? Charles and Carloman. The latter 
d>-u^g two years afterwards, Charles came into possession of 
the wliole kinsfdom. The exploits and policy of tliis prince, 
pi^njred for hun the title of Great, which was incon^rated 
with US name, Charlemagne,* as he is known in histon". He 
exceUed all the sovereigns of his asre. both as a warriir and 
statesman, although he is said to have been extremely illite- 
rate. ^\ ith a great reputation for talent, he has. however, 
descended to us as being deficient in several moral qualities, 
particularly in humanity. 

His cruelty was exercised chiefly upon the Saxons, with 
whom he was engaged in war durino- thirty vears. Their 
bravery and love of freedom g-ave him infinite trouble Thev 
revolted no less than six times, and were as often reduced bv 
force of aims. As a means of subduing theii- bold and fero- 
cious character, he attempted to convert them to Christianity • 
but their obstmacy induced him to resort to compijlsory pro- 
cesses for tins end. Several thousands of them were but- 
chered on their refusal to receive Christian baptism 

Besides his success against the Saxons, Charlema-ne put 
an end to the kmgdom of the Lombards in Italv- a ^^has al- 
ready been nan-ated : he successfuUv encountered the arm. 
ot the^.^aracens ; defeated numerous barbarous tribes, and ex- 
tended his empire bevond the Danube 
JA^^n'yJll^T''^^^'^'^ f'""'' ''^^""'^ ^f his father. Charlemagne is 

H^w^ no 1 ' n/'^r ".^T ^^ ^''^^'^ ^^^^ °^ ^ ^^^"^^ constitution. 
H. "^ It «i?nahzed for activity and viaour of mmd. His sn- 
pen ision of his dominions was most strict and viailant. He heard 
and saw every thmg for himself He discountenanced luxurv. en- 
chaSS^ ^I^^:"^^' '^ ^^^^-^ ^^^ -^^ -^^ --^^-tnal 
^;^ hen he saw any of his courtiers sumptuously dressed he world 

Imo^he' w"Jlds Lfr% P";?' 1 '''' ^^'^^^^ of'which he led them 
hem toThlna^i^^'^'^'- ^'' '^''J. ^^t"rn. he would not permit 
sWina tw^t^^'^' garments which the thorns had torn. After 
Lttered%en^.nf ^^^^^^^^^ sheepskin cloak, as a contrast to their 
"LeavP 'i?lf.n?'/^ ""'^'^^^ '^y^ by way of advice or reproach, 
no^ for show." ^'^ '"^ ''^'"'" ^ '^' ^'^ ^^ ^ °^^^ ^^ '^' ^^^' 

ron^ii'iL^^' ^h^^^^/na?ne met with scarcely a disaster. The only 
^o .nafvl r'''^ '^^'i^' "''"" experienced, was when he was re- 
Zon^^t Si w^'' ^^''' ^««q«ering Navarre, and a part of A^ 
SthP.W Ifl^^^'' army was then cut to pieces by the Gascons, 
mthe plains of Roncevaux. On this occasion, his nephew, the cele- 

* Charlemagne—Charles the Great. 



96 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

brated champion Roland, lost his life— an event which laid the {own 
dalion of the " Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto. 

As the reign of Chaiieraagiie extends several years into 
the following period, we shall resume it, at the commence- 
ment of that period, with a sketch, in the biographical de- 
partment, of his more private history and character. 

Distinguished Characters in Pei^iod IV. 

1. Mahomet, an Arabian impostor, and fomicler of the re- 
ligion which is called by his name. 

2. Adheime, a British theological writer. 

3. Bede, a venerable English historian. 

4. Charles Martel, the father of a race of kings, and con- 
queror of the Saracens. 

5. John Damascenus, a Christian writer, strongly tinctured 
with the Aristotleian philosophy. 

§ From the paucity of great men during this period, genius and 
learning must have been at a low ebb indeed, and the human mind 
greatly debased and neglected. 

1. Mahomet, as has already been stated, was born at Mecca, in 569 
A. C. The tribe from which he descended, was that of the Koras- 
hites, the most noble in Arabia. His immediate ancestors seem, 
however, to have been undistinguished ; and though his natural ta- 
lents were great, it is certain that his education was inconsiderable. 
He acquired knowledge, but not from books. Intercourse with man- 
kind had sharpened his faculties, and given him an insight into the 
human heart 

The steps he look in propagating his religion have already been 
detailed in part. It may be added, that the main arguments which 
Mahomet employed to persuade men to embrace this imposture, were 
promises and threats, which he knew would work easiest on the 
minds of the multitude. His promises related chiefly to paradise, 
and to the sensual delights to be enjoyed in that region of pure wa- 
ters, shady groves, and exquisite fruits. Such a heaven was very 
taking with the Arabians, whose bodily temperament, habits, and 
burning climate, led them to contemplate images of this sort with ex- 
cessive pleasure. 

On the other hand, his threats were peculiarly terrific to this peo- 
ple. The punishment attending a rejection of his religion, he made 
to consist of evils, that seemed most insuiferable to their feelings. 
The reprobates would be permitted to drink nothing but putrid and 
boiling water, nor breathe any, save exceedingly hot winds ; they 
would dwell forever in continual fire, intensely burning, and be sup- 
rounded with a black, hot, salt smoke, as with a coverlid, &c. ; and, 
to fill the measure of their fears, by joining the present with the fu- 
ture life, he threatened most grievous pimishments in this world. 

As it was one of the impostor's dogmas, that his religion might be 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 97 

defended and propagated by the sword, he invented the doctrine of 
a rigid fate, to reconcile the minds of the timid, and add ardour to 
the brave, under the exigencies of war. He taught that those who 
were slain in battle, though they had tarried at home in their houses, 
must, nevertheless, have died at that very moment,— the time of 
every man's life being before appointed by God, in that unqualified 
sense ; that is, without reference to means. 

Mahomet was distinguished for the beauty of his person. He had 
a commanding presence, a majestic aspect, piercing eyes, a flowintr 
beard, and his whole countenance depicted the strong emotions m 
his mind. His memory was retentive, his wit easy, and his judg- 
ment clear and decisive. In his intercourse with society, he observed 
the forms of that grave and ceremonious politeness, so common to 
Jiis country. His natural temper may not have been worse than that 
of many others ; but the imposture which he forced upon mankind, 
was an instance of most daring impiety and wickedness. 

Mahomet persisted in his religious fraud, or fanaticism, to the last. 
On his death bed he had asserted, that the angel of death was not 
allowed to take his soul, till he had respectfullv^asked the permission 
of the prophet. The request being granted, Mahomet fell into the 
agony of dissolution ; he fainted with the violence of pain, but re- 
covering his spirits in a degree, he raised his eyes upwards, and look- 
ing steadfastly, uttered with a faltering voice, the last broken, though 
articulate words, " O God !— pardon my sins.— Yes,— I come— among 
my fellow-citizens on high ;" and in this manner expired. 

2. Adhelme was the first bishop of Sherbourne, (England.) He 
is said to have been nephew to Ina, king of the West Saxons. The 
period of his death was 709. He composed several poems concern- 
ing the Christian life, but his fancy was quite indifferent. He wrote 
in Latin, and is reported to be the earliest Englishman who wrote in 
that tongue. A translator of his writings, speaks of him as pro- 
foundly versed in Greek, Latin, and Saxon. 

3. Bede, who was surnamed'the Venerable, was an English monk. 
His birth-place was Wearmouth, in the bishopric of Durham, where 
he was born in 672 or 673. He is celebrated as a writer on Eccle- 
siastical history. In his youth he studied with great diligence, and 
soon became eminent for learning. Such was his fame, that he was 
frequently consulted on various subjects, by scholars from different 
parts of the country. 

He published his excellent Ecclesiastical history of England, in 
731, when he was about fifty-nine years of age. He wrote other 
works, particularly an epistle to the bishop of York, which exhibits 
a more curious picture of the state of the church at that time, than 
is elsewhere to be found. That epistle was the last of Bede's wri- 
tings. His last sickness, was a consumption, ending in an asthma, 
which he supported with great firmness. During his weakness, he 
never remitted the duties of his place, being employed the whole of 
the time in instructing the monks. He appears to have been a 
person of genuine piety. His death was in 735. 

4. Charles Martel was the son of Pepin d'Heristel, and duke of 

y 



98 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

Austrasia. He succeeded his father as Mayor of the Palace, as has 
before been stated. That he was a man of great capacity, appears 
from the record of his exploits. As the progenitor of the Carlo- 
vingian race of kings, and conqueror of the Saracens, when they 
were upon the point of overrunning all Europe, he is entitled to a 
very respectful notice in the page of history. Divine Providence 
seems to have raised him up for a great purpose, in checking the 
conquering career of the followers of the false prophet. The pro- 
digious number of 375,000 Saracens, he is said to have defeated and 
Slain. He died in 741. 

5. John Damascenus flourished in the eighth century, dying about 
the year 750. His birth-place was Damascus. He was liberally 
educated, and early made great progress in literature. He succeed- 
ed his father, as counsellor of state to the Saracen Caliph of Damas- 
cus. Becoming zealous for the forms of religion, and warmly es- 
pousing the cause of images, he greatly offended Leo Isauricus, the 
Eastern emperor. 

There is a wild legend of the times, that the emperor caused the 
hand of Damascenus to be cut off, and that it was miraculously re- 
placed by the kind interposition of the Virgin Mary. After a while, 
he is said to have retired from public affairs, and spent the remain- 
der of his life in solitude. In this situation he wrote books of divini- 
ty, of which he left many behind him. He is not generally thought 
to have been an evangelical writer. Mosheim says that he surpassed 
all his contemporaries among the Greeks and Orientals, but was su- 
perstitious, and absorbed in a vain philosophy. 



PERIOD V. 

The Period of the Neio Western Empire; extending fro7n 
the Croicning of Charlemagne^ 800 A. C, to the First 
Crusade^ 1095 years A. C. 

NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 1. The New Western Empire, so called, included the 
dominions of Charlemagne, or the countries of which he was 
acknowledged as the sovereign, in 800 A. C. It was at this 
period that the title of Emperor of the West, was conferred 
upon him. He was established in that august sovereignty, 
by being crowned at Rome, by Pope Leo III. 

It is thought by some, that had he chosen Rome as the 
seat of his government, and at death transmitted an undivi- 
ded dominion to his successor, the fallen empire of the Ro- 



NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. ' 99 

mans might have once more been restored to prosperity and 
greatness. But Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and divi- 
ded, even in his life-time, his dominions among his children. 
The countries, included under the title of the New Western 
Empire, were principally France, Burgundy, Germany, Ita- 
ly, and a part of Spain. The Empire, as such, continued 
but a short time. One country after another separated from 
it under the successors of Charlemagne, and Germany, at last, 
became the sole seat or representative of the Empire. Be- 
fore the expiration of the present Period, the structure reared 
by the French monarch, was dissolved. After pursuing the 
few details of the empire as a body, we shall resume our 
narrative of the individual countries, in theii- separate or in- 
dependent state. 

§ The occasion and the manner of the crowning of Charlemagne, 
were as follows : 

He was wont to pass annually, from the Pyrenees into Germany, 
and thence into Italy. In approaching Rome for the last time, the 
Pope despatched a messenger to meet him with the keys of the Con- 
fession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city of Rome. From 
this union of religious and military attributes, it was evident diat 
Charlemagne was on the eve of becoming emperor. 

Accordingly, on Christmas day, which was then the day of the 
new year, being present at the service of the mass, and on his knees 
before the altar, the Pope cyme suddenly behind him, and placed jDn 
his head the Crown of the Caesars. This act was followed by loud 
acclamations among the populace. An august title, which had lain 
dormant for several centuries, was thus revived, but it did not restore 
Rome to its ancient splendour, for reasons which were given above. 

Charlemagne lived nearly 14 years after he became Emperor of 
the West. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the 72d year of his age, 
and the 46th of his reign. 

2. Charlemagne was succeeded, 814 A. C, by his son, Louis 
the Debonaire, or the Mild. Of the lawful children of Charle- 
magne, Louis alone survived his father, and all the imperiol 
dominions came of course into his hands, except Italy, which 
the emperor had settled on Bernard, one of his grandsons. 

The reign of Louis was highly calamitous. In 817, he 
associated his eldest son, Lothaire, in the empire, and gave 
Acjuitain to Pepin, his second son, and Bavaria to Louis, his 
third. 

A disagreement occurring between Louis and Bernard, 
king of Italy, the latter was subdued, and had his eyes put 
out, in consequence of which he died three days after. The 



100 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

murder of his nephew affected Louis with such a degree of 
remorse, that he performed pubUc penance on account of the 
crime. 

The children of Louis greatly embittered, and even short- 
ened his life. First quarrelhng among themselves, they then 
attacked their father ; and as he was alternately subdued 
and restored, his spirits were at length broken, and he died 
after an inglorious and turbulent reign, 840 A. C. 

§ Louis had a son by a second wife, named Charles, who, as will 
soon appear, became king of France upon the death of his father.— 
As a second partition of the empire was made, in order to give a 
share to this younger son, the otlier brothers were highly disaffect- 
ed. This was one occasion of their contention. 

When Louis found his end approaching, he set aside for Lothaire, 
a sword and a golden sceptre, the emblems of the empire he intend- 
ed for him, on condition, however, that he should abide by the parti- 
tion in favour of Charles. As he did not make any mention of his 
son, Louis of Bavaria, (Pepin had already deceased,) it was intimated 
to the old king, tliat as a christian, he ought not to leave the world^ 
without bestowing upon Louis his pardon. The dying monarch 
shook his hoary locks, and pointing to them with emotion, replied, 
"I pardon him, but you max^ tell him, that it was he who has brought 
down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." 

3. Charles, surnamed the Bald, succeeded Louis the mild, 
in a part of his original dominions, 840 A. C. Soon after 
his accession, followed the terrible battle of Fontenay, between 
the three brothers now left, viz. Lothaire, Louis and Charles, 
in which Charles and Louis were victorious. Lothaire, as 
the appointed emperor, had wished to obtain the possession of 
all his father's territories, and refused to allow the partition in 
favour of Charles. But being overcome in the battle of Fon- 
tenay, he was obliged to relinquish his pretensions, and to 
accede to such a division of the empire, as his brothers now 
made among themselves. 

Lothaire, who preserved the title of emperor, had, assigned 
to him, Italy, and several of the southern provinces of France. 
Louis had the whole of Germany. France, including Neus- 
tria and Aquitain, fell to the lot of Charles. Thus the fine 
Empire of the West, founded by Charlemagne, was lost to 
the house of France, by the separation of Germany from 
that house. Instead of remaining hereditary, the crown be- 
came elective, after it had passed, as it did finally, into the 
hands of the Germans. 

§ The battle of Fontenay was fought with the greatest obstinacy. 



NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 101 

Historians agree in stating that 100,000 men perished on that occa- 
sion. Lothaire fled to the Saxons, yet laid his plans in such a man- 
ner as to obtain from his brothers a portion of the empire. 

In the reign of Charles, France was plundered by the Normans, 
who had begun their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne. 
But their progress was then inconsiderable. In 843, however, they 
sailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another fleet en- 
tered the Loire, and laid waste the country in its vicinity ; the ma- 
rauders not only securing great quantities of spoil, but carrying 
men, women and children into captivity. In 845, they entered the 
Seine again with a fleet, and advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled, 
and the city was burnt. With another fleet they approached to Bor- 
deaux, and pillaged it. Charles, instead of repressing the incursions 
of these barbarians with his arms, purchased their forbearance with 
money. 

1. Lothaire, the emperor, died in 8.5-5. Before his death, 
he divided his dominions among his three sons. Louis II. 
was the son who succeeded him with the title of emperor. 
He was a brave and virtuous sovereign, and died 875. 

2. Louis, to whom Germany was assigned, was a power- 
ful monarch, and rendered himself formidable to his neigh- 
bours. He died 876. Upon this event, Charles marched 
with a large army to seize his dominions, but he w^as soon 
defeated by his nephew Carloman, the son of Louis IL, ha- 
ving been first crowned emperor hy the Pope. 

3. Charles, on the death of Louis IL, son of Lothaire, 
(875) assumed the empire, oi', as is said, purchased it from 
pope John YIIL, on condition of holding it as a vassal to the 
Holy See. This prince, after contending for the space of tw^o 
years, with the possessors of the other portions of the empire, 
with various success, died of poison, 877 A. C. His reign 
must be pronounced, on the whole, to have been a weak and 
inglorious one. 

He was the first of the French monarchs, who made dig- 
nities and titles hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the 
Carlovingian kings, the grandees obtained great power, and 
commanded a formidable vassalage. They chose to reside 
on their territorial possessions, and refused to take any inter- 
est in the general concerns of the country. Intrenched in 
their castles and fortresses, they defied the powder of the go- 
vernment, while the country was disturbed and desolated by 
their feuds. 

The Empire of the West being now effectually dismem- 
9* 



102 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

beredj though there were afterwards temporary junctions of 
its different parts, we may properly resume our narrative of 
the several countries in their separate state. As the power 
w^hich formed this empire emanated from France, it is natural 
to speak of this first. Indeed, we have been under the neces 
sity of noticing it already more than the rest. Germany, not 
having had a pohtical existence before the era of Charlemagne, 
will be new on the list of nations. 

FRANCE. 

4. Louis II., the Stammerer, succeeded Charles, as 
king of France, 877 A. C. Nothing of importance occurred 
during his reign, which was a short one, of only nineteen 
months. His two sons, Louis III., and Carloman, became 
joint possessors of the throne upon his death. Their reign 
was short, but it was characterized by union, vigour, and a 
degree of success against their enemies, the Normans. They 
died, the one in 882, and the other in 884. 

§ Their deaths were each accidental. Louis, in pursuing a young 
female who fled from him, struck his head against the door, and 
was killed by the blow. Carloman, who survived him but a short 
time, in hunting a wild boar, was wounded by a spear which one of 
his attendants launched against the anirtial. To save the attendant 
from the blame that might be attached to the act, Carloman report- 
ed that he had been wounded by the wild boar. Though he lived 
several days, he persevered in keeping the cause of his death a 
secret. 

5. Charles, surnamed the Fat, was chosen by the peers of 
France to fill the vacant throne, 885. He was brother and 
successor to Louis II., the German, and son of the Louis, to 
whom Germany was originally assigned. For a short time, 
France and Germany were again under the same sway. At 
the expiration of two years, however, Charles was deposed 
on account of his cowardice, and the imperial dignity was 
transferred to Germany. 

The nobility then elected Eudes, count of Paris, to fill 
the throne, 887, till Charles, a younger brother of Louis III., 
and Carloman, should attain to the age of manhood. Upon 
the death of Eudes, Charles, who was surnamed the Simple, 
WcLs introduced to the sovereignty, 898, but he was deposed 
by Robert, the brother of Eudes, in 922. Robert was suc- 
ceeded by Ralpho, or Rodolph, duke of Burgundy, the year 
after. 



FRANCE. 103 

§ Charles the Simple, died in prison, 929. He was a weak mo- 
narch, and despised by his nobles. It is said, however, that in bat- 
tle, he killed the valiant Robert with his own hand. Upon the death 
of Charles, Rodolph was in quiet possession of the throne. 

It was during the reign of Charles that the Normans invaded 
Neustria, which was ceded to them in 911. To Rollo, their chie]^ 
the king gave his daughter, Giselle, in marriage. From this people 
the comitry was called Normandy, and it is from this race of war- 
riors, that we shall trace the future conquerors of England. 

6. Louis IV., the son of Charles the Simple, was called to 
the throne of France, in 930. He was surnamed Outremer, 
or Transmarine, on account of having been brought up in 
England. During his reign, and that of his successor, Lo- 
thaire, Hugh the Great, the most powerful lord of France, 
directed, for the most part, the government. The same situ- 
ation was held by his son, Hugh Capet, under Louis V., the 
successor of Lothaire. When Louis died, Hugh, hke another 
Pepin, placed himself on the throne of France. 

§ The corruption of these times, and the peculiar uncertainty and 
infelicity attending the condition of kings, are manifest, from the 
fact, that both Lothaire and Louis were poisoned by their queens. 

7. Hugh Capet, the head of the thiid dynasty of kings 
in France, called the Capetian, began to reign in 987 A. C. 
He was crowned at Rheims, on the third of July. His 
administration was marked with abiUty. He enacted several 
salutary laws and ordinances, and established his residence 
in Paris, ^^ hich had been deserted by his predecessors during 
more than two hundred years. He delegated a portion of 
the supreme authority to his son Robert, near the beginning 
of his reign. 

§ The true heir to the crown, was Charles of Lorrain, uncle to 
Louis V. Attempting to secure his rights by force, he was at last 
betrayed and confined in prison, where he soon died. 

Hugh, either through modesty, or the fear of exciting the jea- 
lousy of his nobles, never assumed the insignia of royalty. He al- 
ways, even on great and solemn occasions, appeared in a plain dress 
and simple style. 

8. Robert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded his father in 
996. Marrying a cousin in the fourth degree, Bertha, who 
was the daughter of the king of Burgundy, his marriage was 
annulled, himself excommunicated, and his kingdom put 
under an interdict by the pope. This was the first instance 
of such an exercise of the papal authority in France. The 
distress and confusion that ensued, obliged Robert, much 



104 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

against his inclinations, to dismiss Bertha, and to expiate his 
offence by a solemn penance. 

He soon after married Constantia of Toulouse, who proved 
to be a vexatious partner, and cruel queen. 

§ The superstition of the times was seen in the affair of the Pope's 
interdict. The mass was no longer celebrated ; the sacrament re- 
fused to the sick ; and the dead left without burial. There were no 
longer any regulations of police ; and. as all dreaded to approach an 
excommunicated person, the king was abandoned. He commanded, 
however, the services of two faithful domestics, who passed through 
the fire whatever he had touched, and threw to the dogs the refuse 
of the table. 

The king, in his second marriage, was extremely unhappy. Con- 
stantia continually tormented him. She caused the king's favourite, 
grand master of the palace, to be assassinated. She sowed discord 
between the sons of Robert. And her intolerance in religion was 
such, that she ordered thousands of a certain sect of heretics to be 
burned at the stake. 

It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that in the province of Lan- 
guedoc, where these cruelties were particularly exercised, the pro- 
testant faith has since constantly predominated over Catholicism. 

Robert is said to have been the first of the French kings who, accord- 
ing to the superstitions of the vulgar, received the supernatural gift of 
curing scrofulous affections, thence denominated the king's evil, by 
touching the sick, and pronouncing these words, " The king touches 
thee, and may God cure thee." 

9. On the death of the king, his two sons, Henry and Ro- 
bert, both aspired to the throne. It belonged to Henry, but 
the infamous Constantia had contrived to create an interest in 
favour of Robert. After some bloodshed, Henry was invested 
with the sovereign authority, 1031 A. C. He was an ac- 
tive sovereign, who knew how to maintain, and even extend 
his dominion, but he was not always judicious in his en- 
terprises. 

§ He subdued several of his rebellious nobles, defeated an army ot 
a younger brother who had claimed an inheritance in the monarchy, 
and espoused, for a time, the cause of William of Normandy, against 
the Norman grandees. He, however, soon attacked the latter — a 
rash step, which laid the foundation of long and disastrous wars. 

About the commencement of Henry's reign, a dreadful famine 
desolated not only France, but the rest of Europe. The dead were 
disinterred to serve as food for the living. The passengers were 
intercepted on the high ways, and carried into the woods to be 
devoured by the famishing peasantry. In one place, human flesh 
was publicly exposed for sale ; and in another, an innkeeper massa- 
cred the poor during the night, so as to furnish his table for guests 



ITALY. 105 

on the following day. The season was such that corn could not be 
raised, and the want of pasture occasioned the death of cattle. 

10. Henry left the crown to his son Philip I., then seven 
years old, 1060 A. C, under the regency of Baldwin, count 
of Flanders. Philip was rather a spectator than an actor in 
the political events of his reign. He lived beyond the com- 
mencement of the first crusade, having swayed the sceptre 
during forty-eight years. His principal war was with Wil- 
liam of Normandy, now become king of England. From 
this date commenced a long hostility between the English 
and French monarchies. 

ITALY. 

11. In the division of the Western Empire among the sons 
of Louis the Debonaire, Ital)", as we have seen, was assign- 
ed to Lothaire, with the title of emperor. His successor, as 
we have also seen, was Louis II., his son, who died in 875. 
The succeeding year, Charles the Bald, king of France, was 
proclaimed king of Italy by a diet at Pavia. But he retain- 
ed this sovereignty only two years, his death occurring in 877. 

Italy was afterwards ravaged by contending tyrants : but 
in 964, Otho, the Great, reunited it to the dominions of the 
German empire. A series of wars, however, continued dur- 
ing at least two centuries, occasioned by the invasions of the 
Normans, and the claims of the emperors, till Italy was di- 
vided into several independent states. These wars are too 
unimportant and uninteresting to be noticed in this, or the 
follow^ing period. Italy, therefore, once the mistress of the 
world, must, for a time, be left out of the records of nations, 
except as her affairs shall be incidentally noticed in the his- 
tory of Germany. Her independent sovereignties, formed at 
different times, as Naples, the estates of the Church, Tusca- 
ny, Parma, Lombard y, the Genoese, and the Venetian territo- 
ries, may, in some subsequent period, be duly noticed. 

§ A transaction, in which Otho II., the second German emperor 
after Italy was re-united to the empire, was engaged, may be ?iere re- 
lated. Several cities of Italy took occasion to throw off their alle- 
giance to the emperor. Otho, hearing of it, soon entered Italy with 
an army, and adopted the following most cruel method to punish 
the authors of the tumults. 

He invited the nobles of Rome to a grand entertainment in the 
Vatican palace and when the guests had placed themselves at the 



106 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

table, he forbade them, under pain of death, to speak or move at 
what they should hear or see. Instantly they were surrounded by 
armed men, and while they sat trembling, the emperor composedly 
ordered the names of those concerned in the late disturbances to be 
read over, and the guilty to be put to death in the midst of the hall. 
After the bloody mandate was executed, he was all smiles and com- 
plaisance to the other guests, during the entertainment. 

It may be recorded here, that it was during the present 
period, the foundation of the temporal power of the popes 
was laid. In 1080, Matilda, countess of Tuscany, bequeath- 
ed a large portion of her dominions to pope Gregory tlie VII. 
From that time the popes possessed great power in tlie states 
of Europe. Although the emperors (German) asserted their 
sovereignty over Italy and the popedom, and claimed the 
absolute right of electing the pope ; yet it was with a con- 
stant resistance on the part of the Romans, and a general 
repugnance of the popes, wdien once estabUshed. 

SPAIN. 

12. The empire of Charlemagne, in Spain, comprised but 
a small part of that country. Indeed, all that the Christians, 
(including the native Spaniards and the French,) possessed, 
constituted only about a fourth of the kingdom, viz., Asturia, 
part of Castile and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Cata- 
lonia and Navarre were subdued by Charlemagne, but his 
successors seem to have taken no interest in the conquest ; it 
probably soon reverted back to the Christians of Spain. All 
the remainder of the Peninsula, including Portugal, was oc- 
cupied by the Moors. 

Cordova, a luxurious and magnificent city, Avas the 
Moorish capital. It was a great school for the sciences, and 
the resort of the learned from all parts of the world. In the 
tenth century, their dominions were divided among a num- 
ber of petty sovereigns, w4io were constantly at war w'ith 
one another. Had the Christians availed themselves of this 
state of things, they might perhaps have then regained the 
whole kingdom ; but they were unhappily contending among 
themselves, and it was sometimes the case, that the Christian 
princes formed aUiances with the Moors against one ano- 
ther. 

§ Taste and the sciences flourished in Cordova, and the south of 
Spain, when the rest of Europe had become involved in barbarism 



GERMANY. 107 

and ignorance. Cordova, as the seat of government, enjoyed a 
splendid period of two hundred years, reckoning from the middle of 
the eighth, to the middle of the tenth century. During that period, 
the Moorish portion of Spain boasted of a series of able princes, 
who gained the palm over all the nations of the West, both in arts 
and arjns. 

It was only after the Moorish princes became luxurious and effe- 
minate, that the nation was divided into a number of petty states, 
the principal of which, were Toledo, Cordova, Valentia, and Seville. 

To add to the divided state of Spain, both among the Moors and 
Christians, the country- abounded with independent lords, who were 
warriors and champions by profession, making it their business to 
decide the quarrels of princes, or to volunteer their service and that 
of their vassals and attendants, on such occasions. Of this descrip- 
tion of persons, termed knights-errant, the most distinguished was 
Rodrigo the Cid, who undertook to conquer the kingdom of New 
Castile, for his sovereign, Alphonso, king of Old Castile. Of the 
passion for knight errantry, however, it is proposed to speak in some 
other place. 

The contentions araongtbe petty kingdoms of Spain need 
not detain us here, nor will it be expedient to dwell on the 
subsequent history of Spain, until the expulsion of the Moors, 
and the union of the whole country under one head, towards 
the conclusion of the fifteenth century. 

GERMANY. 

13. Germany was known in ancient times, but it possess- 
ed no political importance till the era of Charlemagne. Pre- 
viously, it was a rude and uncivilized country, and fluctuating 
in its government. Charlemagne may therefore be consider- 
ed the reviver, if not the founder of the German empire. 
As a component part of his sovereignty, it has been already 
noticed so fiir down as the termination of the short reign, or 
rather usurpation, of Charles the Bald, of France, in 877. At 
that period, or perhaps a few years subsequent, it may be con- 
sidered as having been effectually separated from France; and 
of all the dominions of Charlemagne, it has alone descended 
as an empire, and the representative of the sway which he 
once held over the nations of the West. The emperor of 
Germany is to this day, nominally at least, regarded as suc- 
cessor to the Emperors of Rome. 

§ Germany, is said to be compounded of the Celtic word ger^ 
brare, and man^ signifying a warlike people. In ancient times, it 
comprehended ail the country from the Baltic to Helvetia, and from 



108 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

the Rhine to the Vistula. The primitive inhabitants were most pro- 
bably the Celts. But our information respecting Germany is scanty, 
till the period of the Roman conquests in that country. Some ages 
before that time, the Goths, or Teutones, had migrated from the 
eastern part of Europe, along the Euxine, and established them- 
selves on the shores of the Baltic, in Belgica, in the north of France, 
and the south of England ; driving the original inhabitants into the 
northern and western regions.* 

When Rome was in the zenith of its power, Germany seems to 
have been divided into a number of independent principaHties ; but 
the inhabitants frequently united in the defence of their common li- 
berty, and many bloody battles established their reputation for bra- 
very, before they sunk under the power and policy of their in- 
vaders. At length, however, their country was reduced to a state 
of provincial subjection to the masters of the world ; and upon the 
decline of the Western Empire of Rome, Germany became a prey to 
the Franks, and a considerable part of it remained under the do- 
minion of earls and marquisses, till Charlemagne extended his 
power, both military and civil, over the whole empire. 

14. The successor of Charles the Bald, was Charles III, 
called the Fat, after an interregnum of three years, 881 A. C. 
France was also under his sway at the same time, but he 
w^as soon afterwards deposed, and reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremities. 

15. In 887, Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, and 
nephew of Charles III., was proclaimed emperor of Germany. 
In the course of his reign, he defeated the Normans, took 
Rome, and was crowned there by the pope. His son Louis 
III., became his successor in 899, when only seven years of 
age. He was the last emperor descended in the male line from 
Charlemagne. 

§ The reign of Louis is said to have been so much agitated by di- 
visions between the lords and the bishops, that the young emperor 
died of grief. 

From the death of Louis, the empire became strictly elect- 
ive, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of 
the bishops and grandees had always been asked. 

16. Conrad, duke of Franconia, was elected to fill the 
vacant throne in 912. He reigned seven years, during which 
time he quelled several revolts, and purchased peace of the 
barbarous Hungarians. 

§ The German grandees, who assembled at W^orms, first offered 
the imperial diadem to Otho, duke of Saxony ; but he declining it 

* Webster's Elements, &c. 



GERMANY. 109 

on account of his advanced age, persuaded them to apply the invi- 
tation to Conrad. TJie latter was of imperial descent by his mother, 
who was a daughter of Arnold. During his reign, the aflfairs ol 
Germany were conducted with great prudence. 

17. Upon tlie death of Conrad, the imperial dignity was 
bestowed on Henry I., surnamed the Fowler. This prince 
possessed great abilities, and introduced order and good go- 
vernment among his people. He built and embellished cities, 
reduced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, and con- 
quered several tribes, as the Hungarians, Danes, Sclavoniaiir^. 
Bohemians, c^c. He added Lorrain to his dominions. 

§ Great as Henry was as a statesman, he manifested considerable 
zeal in propagating the Christian faith. A portion of the Vandals 
whom, lie subdued, were, under his auspices, converted to thisreligion. 
He maintained no correspondence with the See of Rome, inasmuch 
as he had been consecrated by his own bishops. 

18. His son Otho I., the great, was elected emperor, 936. 
He carried on the system of his father, in repressing the usur- 
pations, of the lords. The conquest of Bohemia he began in 
938, and finished in 950. In 961 he expelled Berenger II. 
and his son, Adalbert, from Italy, and caused himself to be 
crowned at Milan. The next year he was crowned by Pope 
John XII, and from that time he may be justly styled the 
emperor of the Romans. John afterwards revolted against 
him, but was soon deposed. 

Otho was the greatest prince of his time. After an active 
and commendable reign of thirty years, he died of an apo- 
plectic disorder, in 972. His remains were interred in the 
cathedral church of Magdebourg, w^here his tomb may be 
still distinguished by a Latin inscription. 

§ Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders and crimes of 
the Papacy. Being invited into that' country by the Pope and the 
Italian states, while they were contending with Berenger, he defeat- 
ed the latter, and in return for the honours which the Pope conferred 
upon him, he confirmed the donations made to the Holy See by 
Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis the Debonaire. 

§ The treachery of the Pope, (John XIl.) obliged the emperor, in 
two or three successive instances, to visit Italy to compose the dis- 
orders that took place. The last time, he executed exemplary ven- 
geance on his enemies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling 
together the Lateran Council, he created a new Pope, and obtained 
from the assembled bishops, a solemn acknowledgment of the abso- 
lute right of the emperor to elect to the papacy, to give the investi- 
ture of the crown of Italy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics. 

The power of parental affection is strikingly exhibited in the fol- 
10 



110 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

lowing incident of Otho's life. Liidolphus, his son, had engaged in 
an unnatural revolt, which produced some serious hostilities, and 
occasioned the destruction of the city of Ratisbon ; but after some 
time, the prince was made sensible of his error, and seized an op- 
portunity while the emperor was hunting, to throw himself at his 
feet, and implore his clemency. " Have pity," said he, " upon your 
misguided child, who returns, like the prodigal son, to his father. If 
you permit him to live after having deserved death, he will as- 
suredly repent of his folly and ingratitude, and the residue of his 
life shall be spent in the ftnthful discharge of fihal duty." To this af- 
fecting appeal, Otho could reply only by a flood of tears and a pa- 
ternal embrace ; but when his agitation subsided, he assured the 
penitent of his warmest favour, and generously pardoned all his 
adherents. 

19. Otho XL, surnamed the Sanguinary, succeeded his 
father in 973, during whose reign, and that of several others, 
nothing of importance occurred. The names of the sovereigns 
who followed, down to Henry IV., are Otho III., St. Henry, 
Conrad II., and Henry III. They occupied a period of about 
eighty-three yea.rs. 

20. Henry lY., the Great, succeeded his father at the a^e 
of six years, in 1056. He maintained a perpetual struggle 
with the popes, who insisted, that only the cardinals should 
elect the bishop of Rome. It was the lot of this emperor to 
experience a large share of papal insolence and tyranny. 
After a spirited contest with Pope Gregory VII., during 
which, the pope was twice his prisoner, and the emperor as 
often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell, at last, the 
victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. At the instigation of 
Pope Urban IL, the two sons of the emperor, Conrad and 
Henry, rebelled against their father, and to such an extremity 
was he reduced, through their barbarity and the pope's act of 
excommunication, that he could scarcely obtain the means of 
subsistence. 

His sufferings were terminated by death soon after the ex- 
piration of the present period, viz. in 1106, he having lived 
sixty-four years, and reigned forty-eight. Henry, in his 
youth, was vicious to an uncommon extent, and gave up 
himself freely to the indulgence of his passions. Misfortune, 
afterwards, abated his sensual excesses, if it did not thorough- 
ly reform his character. He lived to acknowledge, that " the 
hand of the Lord had touched him." On the whole, he was 



ENGLAND. Ill 

endowed with many excellent qualities — courage, clemency, 
liberality, and, finally, with contrition and resignation. 

§ The insolent treatment he received from the Pope, appears from 
the following. On one occasion, he set out for Italy, with his wife 
and infont, in order to humble himself at the foot of his holiness. 
On his arrival at the place where the Pope was, he was admitted 
within the outer gate, and informed that he must expect no favour 
until he should have fasted three days, standing from morning to 
evening, barefooted amid the snow, and then implored forgiveness 
for his offences. This penance was literally performed, notwith- 
standing the fatigue of the journey, and on the fourth day he re- 
ceived an absolution. 

The liberality of Henry's disposition was such, that he is said to 
have entertained the sick, the lame, and the blind, at his own table, 
and even to have lodged them in his own apartment, that he might 
be at hand to minister to their necessities. 

ENGLAND. 

Saxon Kings. — Norman Family. 

21. England, which had been divided into seven distinct 
sovereignties during more than two centuries, became one 
entire kingdom, in 827 A. C. This change was effected by 
the prudence and valour of Egbert, prince of the West Sax- 
ons, who inhabited that part of the heptarchy, which was 
called Wessex and Sussex. 

The occasion which offered for the conquest and union of 
the heptarchy, arose from the fact, that Egbert alone remain- 
ed of the descendants of the Saxon conquerors of Britain ; 
he, therefore, naturally looked to the dominion of the several 
states, as a sort of right ; nor did he hesitate to claim it, also, 
with his sword. Success attended his undertaking, and four 
hundred years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain, 
w^ere they united into one powerful kmgdom. 

22 The English, who Avere so happily united under Eg- 
bert, enjoyed their prosperity but a short period. The piratic 
(lal Danes, or Normans, who had molested the EngHsh coasts 
for fifty years, now became still more troubligsome. During 
the life of Egbert, they twice attempted an invasion, but were 
repulsed with much slaughter. 

The death of Egbert, and the character of his successor, 
Ethelwolf, a prince of a very yielding disposition, encq^raged 
the Danes to multiply theii* depredations. They were often 



112 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

defeated, but could not be expelled. By his will, Ethelwolf 
divided England between his two eldest sons — Ethelbald 
and Ethel belt. Alfred, afterwards so illustrious, was a young- 
er son. 

§ It was Ethelwolf who, through facihty of disposition, not only 
granted to the priesthood a perpetual right to tithes, but exempted 
it from all services and imposts. 

The reign of Ethelbald and Ethelbert was short, — com- 
mencing in 857. and ending in 866. To Ethelred, a thii'd 
brother, the sceptre was bequeathed. ' He died bravely, in 
battle against the Danes, and then the immortal Alfred suc- 
ceeded, in 872. 

23. This prince, who was only twenty-two years of age, 
when he ascended the tlnone, found his kingdom in a most 
miserable condition. It was scourged and afflicted by an- 
archy, domestic barbarism, and foreign aggression. By his 
efforts, however, he succeeded in raising it to an eminence 
and happiness, surpassing what might have been expected at 
that period. His talents, virtues, and character, were of the 
highest order, and have justly endeared his name and 
memory to the bosom of every Enghshman. The institu- 
tions which he founded are, to this day, the glory of the Bri- 
tish realm. 

. He patronised learning and the arts — encouraged manu- 
factures and commerce — appropriated a seventh of his reve- 
nue to restore the ruined cities, castles, palaces, monasteries — 
founded or revived the vmiversity of Oxford — divided Eng- 
land into counties and hundreds — took a survey of the coun- 
try, and formed a code of laws, which, though now lost, is 
generally deemed the origin of the common law. 

§ The wisdom of his civil institutions may be seen in his division 
of the country. This plan was resorted to with a view to restore 
the order which the violence and rapacity of the Danes had sub- 
verted. Besides a division into counties and hundreds, there were 
the smaller divisions of tithings. Ten housoholders formed a tith- 
ing, who were answerable for each other's conduct, and over 
whom a headborough was appointed to preside. Every man was 
registered in some tithing, and none could change his habitation, 
without a certificate from the headborough. 

In the decision of differences, the headborough, also called tith- 
ing-man, summoned his tithing to assist him. In affairs of great 
moment, or in controversies between the members of different tith- 
ings, the cause was brought before the court of the hundred, which 



ENGLAND. 113 

was assembled every four weeks. Here we may trace the origin of 
juries. Twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial justice, tried the 
cause in this court. The county court, which met twice a year, 
and consisted of the freeholders of the county, was superior to that 
of the hundred, from which it received appeals. Here disputes be- 
tween the inhabitants of different hundreds were settled. The ulti- 
mate appeal from these several courts, lay to the king in council. 

The reign of Alfied was signalized by his contest with the 
Danes. Within the space of one year, he defeated them in 
eight battles ; but a new irruption of their countrymen, forced 
him to solicit a peace, which these pirates frequently inter- 
rupted by fresh hostilities. At this juncture, Alfred was com- 
pelled to secure his person by retreating into an obscure part 
of the country. Here he continued, disguised in the habit 
of a peasant, for many months, until the disorders in the Da- 
nish army offered a fair opportunity for attacking them. This 
he embraced with great effect. Instead of cutting them off en- 
tirely, as he might have done, he incorporated many of them 
with his English subjects. It was after these exploits, that he 
turned his attention, as already mentioned, to the internal 
improvements of his kingdom. He died in the full vigour 
of his age and faculties, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine 
years, and was justly surnamed the Great. 

§ Alfred having perceived the remissness of the enemy, from whose 
pursuit he had secreted himself, ventured at length to quit his retire- 
ment. With a few of his retainers, he had made some sudden and par- 
tial attacks on the Danes ; but before he attempted to assemble his 
subjects generally in arms, he was determined to explore the state of 
the enemy. His skill as a harper procured him admission into their 
camp. Having been introduced to Guthrum, their prince, he played 
before him in his tent. Here he witnessed their supineness. 

Encouraged by what he had seen, he sent private emissaries to 
the most considerable of his friends, and summoned them to meet 
him with their retainers, at a certain place. The English crowded 
around the standard of a monarch whom they so fondly loved, and 
before their ardour could cool, he led them victoriously against the 
enemies of their country. 

24. Edward, surnamed the Elder, succeeded his father Al- 
fred, in 901. He lived in a stormy period, being continually 
molested by the Northumbrian Danes ; yet he was generally 
successful in his wars, and his administration of government 
was honourable to his character. He reigned twenty-four 
years. 
§ Ethelwald, a younger son of Alfred, inherited his father's passion 
10* 



114 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

for letters, and lived a private life — a happy turn and destiny for 
the son of a prince. 

25. Atheistan, a natural son of Edward, succeeded him, 
925. He was an able and popular sovereign, and opposed 
with success the Northumbrian Danes, Welsh, Scots, <fec. 
He encouraged navigation, by conferring the rank of thane, 
or gentleman, on every merchant who had made three voy- 
ages to the Mediterranean on his own account. His reign 
was of sixteen years continuance. 

§ He effected the laudable design of translating the Scriptures into 
the Saxon tongue, which appears to have been the earliest version 
of that book into the language of Britain. 

26. Edmund, a legitimate son of Edward, next ascended 
the throne, 941. He reigned about five )^ears, having perish- 
ed by the hand of Leolf, a notorious robber. 

Edred, a brother of Edmund, became his successor, 946. 
In this prince, w^as the singular mixture of courage and su- 
perstition. His courage he manifested in reducing to obe- 
dience the Northumbrian Danes — his superstition, in becom- 
ing the dupe of the famous Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury. 
He abandoned his conscience to this deceiver. 

§ Dunstan invented several marvellous legends of his conflicts with 
the devil — pretended piety, but possessed an inordinate ambition — 
and was at last canonized as a saint. 

27. Edwy, a nephew of Edred, now filled the throne of 
the Saxon kings of England, 955. By marrying within the 
degrees of affinity prohibited by the canon law, he and his 
beautiful princess Elgiva, both became objects of monkish per- 
secution. 

§ Archbishop Odo, with a band of soldiers, seized Elgiva, burned 
her fice with a hot iron, and forcibly carried her into Ireland. 
When afterwards she attempted to return to the arms of her hus- 
band, she was secured by this detestable ecclesiastic, and by his 
order so mutilated, that she died in a few days in the sharpest torment. 

28. Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, succeeded to the 
throne, 959. His reign lasted sixteen years. His private 
chaiacter w^as detestable, on account of his hcentiousness ; biit 
ciieigy and success distinguished his public administrations. 
He promoted the inhuman and fanatical Dunstan to the arch- 
bishopric of Canterbury, and paying that prelate a forced ho- 
mage, he was able to carry into effect his various plans of go- 
vernment. 

§ Edgar obtained his wife Elfrida, in the following manner. She 



ENGLAND. 115 

was a daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, and the greatest beauty 
of the Eiighsh court. Edgar designing to marry her if her charms 
were found answerable to report, sent his favourite, Athelwold, to 
visit her, and bring him an account of her person. 

The courtier's fidelity was overcome by the beauty of Elfrida, 
and with a view to secure her for himself, he gave an unfavoura- 
ble account to the king, at the same time intimating that she would 
on the whole be an advantageous match for himself, on account of 
her riches and birth. The king forwarded his favourite's views, and 
he obtained the hand of the fair damsel. 

The truth, however, soon came to the ears of the king, and inform- 
ing Atholwold that he would like to be introduced to Elfrida, and 
the courtier being afraid to decline the honour, he had an opportu- 
nity, of witnessing with his own eyes, the loveliness of her person. 
Atholwold, in the mean time, had been obliged, in the hope of saving 
his wife, to reveal the whole transaction to her, and besought her to 
disguise her beauty on the occasion. 

She, hovv^ever, resenting the artifice by which she had lost a crown, 
purposely sought to captivate the king by a display of her person, 
and easily succeeded. Edgar soon after embraced an opportunity 
in hunting, of stabbing Athelwold, and reaped the fruit of his 
crime in the possession of the enchanting fair one. 

29. The reign of Edward, son of Edgar, by his first wife, 
was short and uninteresting. He perished by assassination, 
which was instigated l^y his step-mother Elfrida, 978. 

Ethelred IL, son of JEdgar, by Elfrida, was placed on the 
throne at the age of eleven. His surname was Ujiready, the 
reproachful epithet of his weakness. His hatred of the Danes, 
who again molested England, was so great, that he ordered 
a massacre of all those of that people wlio had been retained 
as mercenaries in his army. This barbarous mandate was 
strictly executed. 

The Danes at home, however, resolved or vengeance, and 
accordingly under Sweyn, their king, they invaded and rava- 
ged the country. London was saved from destruction, only 
by the payment of a tribute. The w^eak Ethelred fleeing to 
Normandy, the English nobility were ashamed of their prince, 
and in despair of rehef, offered the kingdom to Sweyn. 

The Dane, however, died soon afterwards, and Ethelred 
was restored ; but Canute, the son of Sweyn, asserted his 
claims to the crown by force of arms. He was opposed by 
Edmund, son of Ethehed, with various success. 

In the mean time, Ethelred died, after a long and inglorious 
reign, and Edmund succeeded to the government, 1016. In 



116 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD V. 

the war which he carried on with Canute, he was obligedj at 
length, to divide his kingdom with the latter. But he sur- 
vived this treaty only a month, having been cut off by the 
treachery of his brother-in-law, Edric. 

§ Edmund was surnamed Ironside, from his strength and valour ; 
but though he put forth every effort, he could not save his realm. 
He left two children, who, however, never succeeded to the throne. 

Canute became sole monarch, upon the death of Edmund, 
in 1017, and proved to be the most powerful sovereign of his 
time. He was surnamed the Great, and possessed eminent 
abilities. He was terrible in his resentments, but an impar- 
tial dispenser of justice. 

§ In the distribution of justice, he made no distinction between the 
Danes and English ; he restored the Saxon customs, and gradually 
incorporated the victors with the vanquished. His mind was affected 
with religious considerations towards the close of life, and he became 
alarmed in view of the crimes he had committed, (for he had put 
many of his subjects to death without cause,) but his piety was of 
that superstitious kind, which displayed itself in building churches 
and endowing monasteries, the great virtues of those ages. 

30. Of the three sons whom Canute left, two ruled in suc- 
cession over England, viz. — Harold, surnamed Harefoot, from 
his speed in running, who reigned only four years, and Har- 
dicanute, who reigned but a few months. 

Upon the death of the latter, the English freed themselves 
from the Danish yoke, and restored the Saxon line in Ed- 
ward, a younger son of Ethelred, 1041. He was entitled the 
Confessor, and reigned twenty-five years without merit of 
any kind, unless it were his ability to conciliate the esteem 
of the monks. Having no children, and wishing to defeat 
the views of Harold, the son of the Earl of Godwin, an as- 
pirant to the throne, he appointed his kinsman, William, Duke 
of Normandy, his successor. Edward was the last of the 
Saxon kings of England. 

§ Edward united all the laws of England in one body, called the 
Common Law. He was the first king of England, who pretended 
to cure the king's evil by his touch, a practice which was continued 
till the Hanover succession. 

31. On the death of Edward, Harold actually took posses- 
sion of the throne, but William determined to secure it as his 
rightful inheritance. His preparations were very formidable, 
and he was aided in this romantic age, by many sovereign 



ENGLAND. 117 

princes, ano a vast body of nobility from the different king- 
doms on the continent. 

With an army of 60,000 men, he set sail for the English 
coast. Harold, with nearly the same number of soldiers, met 
him, and was defeated and slain in the field of Hastings. 
The English army was nearly destroyed, while the Normans 
lost about 15,000 men. WiUiam, from this time styled the 
Conqueror, soon assumed the prerogatives of sovereignty, 
1066 A. 0. The princes of the Norman family ruled till the 
time of Henry XL 

William's administration of government was marked with 
ability, and in general, with success. In consequence of the 
discontent often manifested by his English subjects, he began 
to treat them too much as a conquered people, and the natural 
tyranny of his. disposition increased by the commotions in 
which this policy involved him. Hence his measures were 
frequently arbitrary and cruel. 

He alienated the minds of the conquered, by conferring on 
his Norman followers, all the important places in the govern- 
ment ; by causing the Norman language to be the vehicle of 
the church service, and also of judicial proceedings ; by re- 
serving to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game 
throughout the kingdom, and by depopulating a tract of 
country about thirty miles round, in order to form a forest. 
, § He was the author of several other regulations of an inauspicious 
nature, some of which were greatly vexatious to the people. He 
introduced the feudal system ; substituted the murderous practice of 
snigle combat for the trial by jury ; compelled the people to rake 
up then- fires, and put out their lights at the sound of the curfew 
bell ; and he made it a greater crime to destroy an animal, than to 
murder a man. One useful act of his reign, was a survey of all the 
lands and estates of the kingdom, with an estimate of their value, an 
enumeration of every class of inhabitants who lived on them, and 
other miportant specifications. This record is called the Doomsdav- 
book, which is still in being. 

The children of William brought on him no small share 
of trouble. His eldest son Robert, attempted to wrest from 
him the sovereignty of Maine, and his foreign subjects assist- 
ed the rebel. The king led against them an army of the 
English, and during the battle was on the point of being kill- 
ed m a rencounter with his son. Soon after, while waging 
a war with Philip I. of France, who had aided in the rebel- 
hon, he was accidentally killed by a fall from his horse, 1087. 



118 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

He reigned nearly twenty-one years over England, and be- 
queatlied the sceptre to his second son WiUiam. 

William was eminent as a statesman and wairior, and was 
at times capable of generous em.otions ; but the prominent 
traits of his character were very unamiable. His pride, am- 
bition, austerity, and cruelty, both inflicted sufferings on his 
people, and robbed his own mind of peace. In his adminis- 
tration, though he was sometimes politic, he erred on the side 
of severity. 

§ The person of William, was such as befitted a sovereign, espe- 
cially in a rude and warlike age. He was tall, majestic, and well 
proportioned. His strength was so great that scarcely any other 
person could bend his bow, or wield his arms. He was, hov/ever, 
near being overcome by the prowess of his son Robert, on a certain 
occasion. 

While contending with the forces of that rebel, he happened to 
engage with him in person. They were mutually unknown to each 
other, as they were concealed by their armour. Both being vigo- 
rous and resolute, a fierce combat ensued. Robert at length wound- 
ed and dismounted his father, nor did he discover who his antago- 
nist was, till at that instant, in his cry for assistance, William's voice 
was recognized by his son. 

Struck with remorse and horror, the young prince threw himself 
at his father's feet, and implored forgiveness, at the same time assist- 
ing him to mount his own horse. William was implacable at first, 
but reflecting on his son's generosity, he soon became reconciled to 
him, and invited him into England. 

32. William H., surnamed Rufus, from his red hair, ascend- 
ed the throne in 1087. He was destitute of the few virtues 
of his father, and inherited all his vices. Perfidy, tyranny, 
and cruelty, were the chief ingredients of his character. Af- 
ter the defeat of one conspiracy at the beginning, his reign 
was a series of despotic acts, which conferred neither peace 
nor honour on his country. After a reign of thirteen years, 
he was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, with an ar- 
row, while hunting in the New Forest. 

§ 'J'yj'.rel, from fear of the consequences, fled to France. The body 
of Wilham, after several days, was found by the country people, 
and conveyed m a cart to Winchester, where it was interred. The 
person who carried the corpse of the king to interment, was named 
Furkis, and it is remarkable, that some of his decendants, are known, 

,S^^ ^'ery day, to reside near the same spot. 

The cliief monuments that perpetuate the name of Rufus, are the 
I ower, W estmmister Hall, and London Bridge. 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 119 

EASTERN EMPIRE. * 

33. The Eastern, or Greek Empire, during the present 
period, was ruled by thirty-nine emperors, most of them fol- 
lowing in succession, though in a few instances, two or more 
ruled at the same time, and jointly. None of them were very 
distinguished, though a very few were respectable sovereigns. 
In general they were a weak or vicious race, yet scarcely too 
degraded to be rulers of the degenerate Romans. A few 
names will appear below. 

This people, compared with what they had been, were low ; 
yet still they were on an equality, at least, with the first na- 
tions of Europe, at that time. Their degeneracy was rather 
in moral and intellectual qualities, than in external show and 
consequence. There remained among them much of ancient 
wealth and splendour. 

§ In the 10th century, the provinces that still acknowledoed the au- 
thority of the successors of Constantine, had been cast into a new 
form by the institution of the themes, or military gevernmcnts Of 
these, there were twenty-nine, viz. twelve in Europe, and seventeen in 
Asia ; but their origin is obscure. The victories of a few of tlie em- 
perors had enlarged the boundaries of the Roman name ; but in the 
eleventh century the prospect was darkened. The relics of Italy 
were swept away by the Norman adventurers, and the Turks had 
removed many of the Asiatic props of the empire. Still the spa- 
cious provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, were obedient to 
their sceptre, and tJiey possessed Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete, with 
tne nfty islands of the ^gean Sea. 

The subjects of the Byzantine empire, were more dexterous than 
other nations, and in the support and restoration of the arts, their 
patient and peaceful temper, and refined taste, are highly to be com- 
mended. The first demand of the public revenue was the pomp 
and pleasure of the emperors. The coasts and islands of Asia and 
Europe, were covered with their magnificent villas. The great pa- 
lace, the centre of imperial residence, was decorated and enlarfred 
by the wealth of successive sovereigns ; and the long series of apart- 
ments were adorned with a profusion of gold, silver, and precious 
stones. ^ 

Of the numerous emperors of this period, whose reicrns in c^eneral 
must have been short, the following only can be noticed. 

Basil I., wlio ascended in 867, was from an obscure family, but 
proved himself worthy of his elevation. He defeated the Saracens 
in the east, and in Italy, but could not prevent them from ravaginir 
the Peloponnesus. ^ * 

An incident of this emperor's reign is the following. His son, Leo, 
had been imprisoned on a false accusation of an attempt to assas- 



120 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

sinate the emperor. Frequent intercessions were made by those 
who beheved in the son's innocence, to have him relea:<ed, till the 
emperor in his impatience, forbade Leo's name to be mentioned in his 
hearing. It happened, however, one day, that a parrot which had often 
heard a regret expressed for the unhappy prince, on a sudden broke 
out with, " Alas, poor Leo !" in the emperor's presence. Basil, struck 
with the sounds, was so moved that he consented to his son's libera- 
tion. 

Nicephorus Phocas possessed the reputation both of a hero and 
saint. His saintship, however, was only a pretence. He proved his 
claim to heroism in his wars with the Saracens. He invaded Asia, 
and overran Mesopotamia. His vices, especially his avarice, render- 
ed him odious to his subjects. He was assassinated by John Zime- 
sees, who succeeded him in the empire, and who afterwards met 
with the same fate. 

Basil H. marched against the kingdom of Bavaria, and finally de- 
stroyed it. On this occasion, it is related of him, that having taken 
a great number of prisoners, he divided them into companies of an 
hundred each, caused all their eyes to be put out, and ordered them 
to be conducted to their king by a man who had one eye left. This 
horrible spectacle so affected the king of Bulgaria, that he fainted 
away, and died two days afterwards. 

CHINA. 

34, The thirteenth dynasty of the emperors of China ter- 
minated during the present peiiod, which induded also five 
other dynasties. The number of emperors was thirty-three. 
Some of them were very wise men. In the reign of Tai- 
tsong, of the thirteenth dynasty, Christianity was introduced 
into a small part of China. 

§ Tai-tsong was one of the greatest of the Chinese princes. He 
was M'ise, frugal, and affable. His ministers attempted to excite in 
him apprehensions from his too great familiarity with his subjects ; 
but he replied, " I consider myself in the empire as a father in his 
family. 1 carry all my people in my bosom, as if they were my 
children. What then have I to fear ?" 

Chwang-tsong, of the fifteenth dynasty, from a general, stepped to 
the throne. As emperor, he preserved his martial habits, Uved very 
frugally, and slept on the bare ground with a bell about his neck to 
prevent his sleeping too long. He was devout, and all his prayers 
were offered for the good of his subjects. Block printing was in- 
vented among the Chinese during his reign. 

SARACENS. 

35. At the commencement of the present period, the Sa- 
racens were flourishing in science and the arts. Their mi- 
litary distinction was perhaps on the wane. Nearly forty 



SARACENS. 121 

years had elapsed since the seat of their empire was trans- 
ferred to Bagdad, and Arabia, in consequence, had lost much 
of its importance. Many of the chiefs of the interior provin- 
ces became independent, and withdrew themselves from the 
civil jurisdiction of the cahph. 

§ It is supposed, that the Saracens, had they acknowledged only 
one head, might have established and perpetuated an immense em- 
pire. But after the extension of their conquests, they were broken 
up into separate states. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had, at 
an early period, their own sovereigns, who, though they paid a reh- 
gious respect to the caliph of Bagdad, awarded him no temporal 
submission. Divided among themselves, they were destined ere 
long to fall. 

36. The principal military expedition of the African Sara- 
cens in this period, was the invasion of Sicily, and the project- 
ed conquest of Italy. They actually laid siege to Rome, which 
was strenuously defended by Pope Leo IV. They were en- 
tirely repulsed, having their ships dispersed by a storm, and 
their army cut to pieces, 848. 

37. The house of Abbas, which now enjoyed the caliphate, 
furnished twenty- two caliphs during this period. These reign- 
ed in succession, and Bagdad continued to be the seat of their 
power. In the year 1055, however, Bagdad was taken by the 
Turks, and the caliphs, from that time, instead of being tem- 
poral monarchs, became only the supreme pontiffs of the Ma- 
hometan faith. 

At the time of the first crusade, in the beginning of tlie 
next period, Arabia was governed by a Turkish sultan, as 
were Persia, and the greater portion of lesser Asia. 

§ We can notice only one or two of the caliphs of Bagdad. Adad- 
odawla was deemed a great prince. He was magnanimous, liberal, 
prudent, and learned ; but he was also insatiably ambitious. A re- 
mark which he made when at the point of death, is a melancholy 
comment on human greatness. With a faultering tongue, he cried, 
" What have all my riches and prosperity availed me ? My power 
and authority are now at an end." 

Mahmud Gazni, was a famous conqueror. He invaded and con- 
quered a part of India. The following striking anecdote is related 
of him by historians. A poor man, who had complained to him 
that one of his soldiers had driven himself and family out of his 
house in the night, was told to inform the prince if that occurrence 
should take place again. The poor man had occasion to inform the 
prince, who went to the house, and causing the lights to be extin- 
guished, cut the intruder in pieces. The prince then commanded 
tlie flambeaux to be lighted, and after closely inspecting the corpse, 

11 



122 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

offered thanks to God, and asked for some refreshment. This being 

afforded, he ate heartily of the mean fare. 

Being interrogated by his host respecting the reason of his con- 
duct, he rephed, " Ever since your complaint, my mind has been 
harassed with the thought, that none but one of my own sons would 
commit such an act of audacity. I had resolved to show him no 
lenity, and commanded the lights to be put out, that the sight of 
him might not affect me ; but on seeing that the criminal was not 
my son, I returned thanks to the Almighty." 

Distinguished Characters in Period V. 

1. Charlemagne, a successful warrior and able sovereign. 

2. Photius, a learned Christian writer and philosopher. 

3. Erigena, a Scotch philosopher and learned divine. 

4. Alfred, a wise, learned, and virtuous prince. 

5. Al Razi, an eminent Arabian scholar, and physician. 

6. Avicenna, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 

7. Suidas, a Greek lexicographer. 

§ 1, Charlemagne, of v.'hom some account has already been given, 
was king of France, by succession, and emperor of the west, by 
conquest, in 800. He laid the foundation of the dynasty of the 
Western Franks. Though his empire did not hold together, long 
after his death, his successors in the several states of which it iiad 
been composed, reigned several centuries, in the line of the Franks. 
Indeed, this was the case, till the house of Austria was founded. -^ 

Charlemagne was in many respects an admirable sovereign. Ke 
excelled in war; and although he was so illiterate that he could 
not spell his name, he v/as great in the cabinet, and patronised 
learning. He invited into France, literary and scientific men from 
Italy, and from the Britannic Isles. The latter, in those dark ages, 
preserved more of the light of learning, than any of the western 
kingdoms. 

His private character has been much eulogized, though it is ac- 
knowledged that he was sometimes rigid and cruel. He was simple 
in his manners and dress, and opposed to parade and luxury. Eco- 
nomy, industry, and plainness, characterised him in a domestic state. 
His daughters were assiduously employed in spinning and house- 
wifery, and his sons v^ere trained by himself in all manly exercises. 
Except when he held his general assemblies, bis dress, table and at- 
tendants were like those of a private person. 

He was a man of almost incredible activity. Instead of confiding 
in the reports of others, he personally saw that his orders were ex- 
ecuted. The condition of his subjects was constantly in his view. 
In one place, he ordered the repairs of a highway; in another, the 
construction of a bridge ; and in anotlier, he afforded the necessary 
aid to agriculture and commerce. Each of the provinces partook 
in its turn of his benefits. 

Charlemagne founded several seminaries of learning ; but the 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 123 

darkness of the times could scarcely be alleviated by all his efforts. 
He suppressed mendicity, and established a fixed and invariable 
price for corn. The meanest of his subjects were thus enabled to 
provide against their wants, and all complaints on this head were 
banished. After rearing a splendid empire, he departed this life at 
the age of seventy-one years. 

2. Photius was patriarch of Constantinople in the ninth century, 
and the greatest man of the age in which he lived. He possessed 
the patriarchate only ten years, during which, he was exposed to a 
most turbulent opposition and cabal. He was at last deposed, and 
died in a monastery. He deserves a high rank in point of erudi- 
tion. He was the author of a commentary on the ancient writers, 
a collection of the canons of the church, epistles, &c. These are 
yet valuable on several accounts. In commenting on the scriptures, 
although he followed reason, rather than authority, he is not on the 
whole a model fit to be taken. He explained with ability the cate- 
gories of Aristotle. He died in 886. 

3. Erigena, John Scotus, was born at Ayr, in Scotland, according 
to some authorities, and was very learned, in a very barbarous age. 
He was employed by king Alfred to promote learning and the liberal 
arts. For this purpose he was appointed to preside at Oxford, over 
the studies of geometry and astronomy in particular. He spent 
three years in this situation ; but some disputes and disturbances 
arising at Oxford, he left that place and retired to a monastery at 
Malmsbury. There he opened a school, but his harshness and se- 
verity to his scholars so provoked them, that they stabbed him with 
the iron bodkins they then wrote with, in such a manner, that he 
died, 883. Mosheim speaks of Erigena as an eminent philosopher 
and learned divine, and as manifesting uncommon sagacity and 
genius. He wrote a book on Predestination, and translated into 
Latin four pieces of Dionysius, the Areopagite, and was the author 
of some other works. 

4. Alfred, so justly surnamed the Great, was born in 849, as is 
supposed, at Wantage, in Berkshire. He succeeded to the crown on 
the death of his brother Ethelred in 871 ; but he had scarcely time 
to attend to the funeral of his brother, before he was obliged to 
fight for his kingdom and life, with the piratical Danes. His mili- 
tary exploits, with several other things, have been above related. The 
particulars which may with propriety be added, are the following. 

Alfred was both a wise and a pious prince. His qualities were 
most liappily blended together, so that no one encroached on ano- 
ther. He reconciled a most diligent attention to business, with the 
purest and warmest devotion— the severest justice with the most ex- 
emplary lenity — the brightest capacity and inclination for science 
with the most shining talents for action. He was equally a warrior 
and a legislator. He united with rich mental endowments, every 
personal grace and accomplishment. 

The darkness and superstitions of the age, were too powerful for 
his efforts and institutions. He could not expel them to any great 



124 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

extent. Yet he did considerable to elevate the character of hi» 
countrymen, and he aimed at much more. In addition to the schools 
and seminaries of learning which he founded, he afforded the attrac- 
tive influence of his own example. 

His time he usually divided into three equal portions— one was 
employed in exercise or the refection of the body— another in the 
despatch of business— and a third in study and devotion. He con- 
veyed his instructions to tlie people in parables, stories, &c. couch- 
ed in poetry; as he considered these best adapted to their capa- 
city. He translated the Fables of ^Esop, the histories of Orosius 
and Beda, and Boethius on the Consolation of Philosophy. In these 
various literary engagements, he sought the good of his people, as 
well as his own personal, intellectual improvement. 

5. Al Razi, a name not perhaps well known in European literature, 
was famous in the Arabian annals; and the Arabians at this era 
were the most enlightened of the nations. This person is said to 
have been extremely well versed in all kinds of ancient learning ; 
though he excelled most in physic, and is styled the Phcenix of the 
age. He applied himself to the study of philosophy with such suc- 
cess, that he made a wonderful progress in every branch of it, and 
composed a great number of books upon physical and philosophical 
subjects. He composed 12 books on alchemy, in which he asserted 
the possibihty of a transmutation of metals, and was the first writer 
on the small-pox. 

He is said to have contracted M^ebs in his eyes by the immoderate 
eating of beans ; and towards the close of his life, lost both of them 
by cataracts. He would not permit an occulist, who came to coueh 
him, to perform the operation, because he could not tell of how 
many little coats the eye consisted ; sa^dng at the same time, that he 
was not very desirous of recovering his sight, as he had already seen 
enough of the world to make him abhor it. He died about the year 935 

6. Avicenna, who is much celebrated among his countrymen, the 
Mahometans, was born in the year 98u, and died in 1036. The num- 
ber of his books, including his smaller tracts, is computed at near 
one hundred, the majority of which are either lost, or miknown 
in Europe. At the age of ten years, he had made great progress in 
classical literature. It is said that he read over Aristotle's metaphy- 
sics 40 times, got it by heart, but could not understand it. Acciden- 
tally meeting with a book which treated of the objects of metaphy- 
sics, he perceived what Aristotle meant, and out of joy at the disco- 
very, gave alms to the poor. 

7. Suidas flourished between 975 and 1025. His native country 
is not known. He is the author of a very useful Greek Lexicon. 
The work contains much historical and geographical information. 
No particulars seem to have been recorded respecting his life, either 
by himself or by others. He is known only by his book. 



THE CRUSADES. 125 



PERIOD VI. 

The "period of the Crusades ; extending from the First 
Crusade^ 1095 years A. C, to the founding of the 
Turkish Empire^ 1299 years A. C. 

During this period, we have manifold proofs of the darkness of 
the times, with a singular mixture of a spirit of adventure, and lofty 
daring. The age was peculiarly characterised by the crusades, the 
passion for pilgrimages, the exploits of chivalry, and the production 
of romances. Barbarism and turbulence extensively prevailed, while 
the lights of science were few and dim. In England, however, there 
was the early dawn of literature. 

THE CRUSADES. 

Sect. 1. In giving an account of the Crusades, we include 
a portion of the history of the principal European nations. For 
this reason, less of the separate history of those nations will 
appear during this period, than would otherwise be introdu- 
ced. The Crusades were common to all Christendom, and 
all felt a deep interest in them. The other peculiarities of the 
times, as pilgrimages, chivalry, the feudal system, <fcc. since 
they belonged to the established customs and institutions of 
Europe, will be unfolded in the General Yiews. In the Cru- 
sades, the political and military history of a great part of the 
world is carried on for a long time. 

2. The Crusades were w^ars undertaken principally during 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuiies, by the Christian nations 
of Europe, on account of religion. They were termed Cru- 
sades, from the cross which was the badge of the combatants. 
The object of these wars was the deliverance of Palestine, 
and particularly the tomb of Jesus Chiist from the dominion 
of the Turks or Mahometans. 

The Turks, or Turcomans, a race of Tartars, having, in 
10.55, taken Bagdad, and thus overturned the empire of the 
caliphs, came into the possession of the countries which these 
caliphs had governed, and the caliphs themselves, instead of 
temporal monarchs, became sovereign pontiffs of the Mahome- 
tan faith. Palestine, and particularly Jerusalem, were of course 
under the sway of the Turks, and the seat of their religion. 

11* 



126 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

Tn tliis situation of things, the resort of pilgrims to the 
tomb of our Saviour was attended with much difficulty and 
danger. While the Saracens held possession of the comitry, 
the pilgrims were permitted to have free access to the holy 
city ; but its new masters, the Turks, were a more wild and 
ferocious people. They insulted and robbed those fanatical 
devotees — a circumstance, in such an age, of sufficient im- 
portance to arouse all Europe for the deliverance of Jerusalem 
from the infidels. The Roman pontiffs were the principal 
ins-tigators of these desperate adventures. 

§ In an age of religious enthusiasm, and in an unenlightened state 
of society, it is not surprising that Judea should have been an object 
of veneration, or superstitious regard to the Christian world. Here 
the great events recorded in the sacred scriptures transpired — the 
chosen people of God subsisted through many generations — unnum- 
bered miracles were performed — the Mosaic and Christian dispen- 
sations were set up — even God's own Son, the Messiah, lived, suffer- 
ed, and died. Here prophets and apostles had preached, and writ- 
ten, and shed their blood in testimony of the truth, and every tenant- 
ed part, especially the Holy City, was marked by some divine inter- 
position or manifestation, most dear to the lover of piety. 

A country so '.; allowed, is capable, even now, of exciting the most 
delightful associations ; and though we are in no danger of attempt- 
ing any thing like a crusade, yet nothing relating to such a land can 
be contemplated without deep emotion. What sensations then must 
have been excited in a deeply enthusiastic and superstitious age ! 
And much as we smile at their folly, how easily can we account for 
the ardour which was displayed by unlettered minds and fanatical 
tempers, on the subject of the crusades ! Connected also, as was a 
pilgrimage to the holy land, with the idea of merit, and merit even 
sufficient to purchase salvation, nothing can be conceived more cal- 
culated to arouse every honourable and indignant feeling, than the 
obstructions in the way of such a devotion. It was a hardship not 
to be endured, that the Christian disciple should be prevented from 
approaching and musing over, with a sort of adoration, the sepul- 
chre in which his blessed Redeemer was laid. 

2. There were five* expeditions of the kind here spoken 
of, which, during nearly two centm'ies, drained from Europe 
most of its life-blood and treasures. All western Em'ope h^- 
came involved in these destructive wars, but the French eii- 
lered upon them with more enthusiasm than any other na- 
tion. 

The first crusade was preached by Peter, commonly styled 

* Some reckon a larger number. 



THE CRUSADES. 1^7 

the hermit. After having sufficiently excited Christendom by 
his rude eloquence, he found vast multitudes ready to engage 
in the hazardous undertaking. The popes, however, had 
for some time contemplated the same design, and Urban II., 
the reigning pontiff, availe^d himself of this opportunity of 
executing his splendid project of arming the whole of Chris- 
tendom against the Mahometans, through the instrumentality 
of Peter. Two general councils w ere called and held on the 
subject, one at Placentia and the other at Clermont, and were 
attended by many thousands. The pope himself harangued 
the multitude, and offered to all who would engage in the ser- 
vice, plenary indulgence, and full absolution of sins. 

Peter, who possessed none of the necessary qualities of a 
military leader, was placed at the head of this motley crowd 
of all ages, conditions, and character, amounting to eighty 
thousand men. They commenced their march towards the 
East, in the spring of 1096, and were soon followed by an 
addition of two hundred thousand persons of the same pro- 
miscuous description. They were an}^ thing rather than a 
regularly appointed army, or efficient military force. Their 
progress was marked by outrages ; not more than one third 
of them reached the scene of action ; and those who did, 
were nearly all cut off in battle on the plain of Nice. 

§ Peter the Hermit, was a native of Amiens, in Picardy, (France.) 
He seems to have been the first effectual mover of this mighty, and 
it may be properly added, mad project. His own pilgrimage to the 
tomb of our Saviour, had made him acquainted with the dangers and 
vexations to which pilgrims were exposed in Asia, and became the 
occasion or cause of the enterprise in which he embarked. Fired 
with a sense of his own wrongs, and those of his fellow pilgrims, 
he sought the gratification of revenge, or at least, the means of 
preventing the recurrence of those evils, in future. For this purpose 
he travelled from city to city, and from kingdom to kingdom, repre- 
senting with a rude but pathetic eloquence, the grievances of the 
pilgrims, and urging the necessity of making a common effort against 
the common enemy of Christians and their religion. On this sub- 
ject he exhorted all whom he met, and hesitated not to call on no- 
bles -as well as their vassals — the rich as well as the poor. 

His applications of this kind were aided by his personal appear- 
ance. He was a monk, and exhibited all the austerity of that cha- 
racter. He was an enthusiast, and displayed more than an enthu- 
siast's madness. He travelled bare headed, and with naked arms 
and legs, having only a part of his body covered with a coarse gar- 
ment. He seemed wasted with fasting, and exhausted with anxiety 



128 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

and toil. He bore aloft in his hand a ponderous crucifix, to which 
he pointed with the most animated gestures j nor did he restrain his 
prayers, whatever his situation might be, but poured his whole soul 
in loud and prolonged supplications in the streets and highways. 

The body of enthusiasts who crowded around him was immense. 
Princes, noblemen, artisans, peasants, monks, and even women, ma- 
nifested equal anxiety to bend their steps to the East, and expel the 
infidel hordes from the consecrated land. To the vicious and aban- 
doned in character— to the ambitious and disorderly— to robbers, in- 
cendiaries, murderers, and other offenders, a fit opportunity was pre- 
sented of procuring the pardon of their sins, and at the same time 
of indulging in unbounded lust and rapine. 

As Malmsbury curiously observes, "the report of the council of 
Clermont, wafted a cheering gale over the minds of Christians. 
There was no nation so remote, no people so retired, as did not re- 
spond to the papal wishes. This ardent love not only inspired the 
continental provinces, but the most distant islands and savage coun- 
tries. The Welshman left his hunting ; the Scotch his fellowship 
with vermin ; the Dane his drinking party ; the Norwegian his raw 
fish." Robert of Normandy, after mentioning in general terms the 
contributions of men which France and England made to the holy 
war, thus singularly mixes other nations : 

" Of Normandy, of Denmark, of Norway, of Bretagne, 
Of Wales, and of Ireland, of Gascony, and of Spain, 
Of Provence, and of Saxony, and of AUemagne, 
Of Scotland, and of Greece, of Rome and AqUitain " 

At this time, " every wonderful event in the natural world was 
regarded as an indication of the divine will. Meteors and stars 
pointed at and fell on the road to Jerusalem. The skies were in- 
volved in perpetual storms, and the blaze and terror of anxious and 
disordered nature showed the terrific harmony of heaven with the 
sanguinary fury of earth. Man fully responded to the supposed 
calls of God. The moral fabric of Europe was convulsed ; the re- 
lations and charities of life were broken ; society appeared to be 
dissolved. Persons of every age, rank, and degree, assumed the 
cross. The prohibition of women from undertaking this journey 
was passed over in contemptuous silence. They separated them- 
selves from their husbands where men wanted faith, or resolved to 
follow them with their helpless infants. Monks, not waiting for the 
permission of their superiors, threw aside their black mourning 
gowns, and issued from their cloisters full of the spirit of holy war- 
riors. They who had devoted themselves to a solitary life, mistook 
the impulses of passion for divine revelations, and thought that hea- 
ven had annulled their oaths of retirement. A stamp of virtue was 
fixed upon every one who embraced the cause ; and many were 
urged to the semblance of religion, by shame, reproach, and fashion. 
When families divided, nature and fanaticism contended for the 
mastery. A wife consented to the departure of her husband, on his 
vowing to return at the end of three years. Another in whom fear 



THE CRUSADES. ^ 129 

was stronger than hope, was lost in violence of grief. The husband 
wore the semblance of indifference, unmoved by the tears of his wife 
and the kisses of his children, though his heart reproached him for 
the sternness of his countenance. On the other hand, fathers led 
their sons to the place of meeting — women blessed the moment of 
separation from their husbands, or if they lamented, it M^as from 
the cause they were not permitted to share the honours and perils of 
the expedition. In some instances, the poor rustic shod his oxen 
like horses, and placed his whole family in a cart, where it was 
amusing to hear the children, on the approach to any large town or 
castle, inquiring if the object before them was Jerusalem." 

Such was the disordered rabble that attempted the conquest of 
Palestine, and such the circumstances under which the expedition 
commenced. Only a small part of the vast multitude ever reached 
Asia. From the beginning they were illy provided with necessaries, 
and therefore had recourse to acts of rapine. Their progress, so de- 
structive to the countries through which they passed, was frequently 
arrested by collision with their inhabitants. The Jews of Germa- 
ny were the first sufferers ; but it was in Hungary and Bulgaria 
especially, that the outrages committed by the Crusaders were visit- 
ed upon their own heads. When they arrived at Constantinople, 
the emperor, Alexius Commenus, to whom they behaved themselves 
with the utmost insolence and folly, was not slow to rid himself of 
his troublesome guests. For this purpose he furnihsed them with 
every aid which they required, and lent his ships to transport them 
across the Bosphorus. 

They thence pursued their march, but the Sultan Solyman meet- 
ing them on the plains of Nice, their numbers were too much redu- 
ced to offer him any thing else than an easy victory. Of their bones, 
Solyman erected a pyramid near the city, as a monument of his own 
fortune, and of their headlong counsels. 

3. A new host, which was the most valuable part of this 
expedition, arrived in the mean time, at Constantinople, as a 
general rendezvous. The commanders were experienced 
generals and men of renown. Among them, were Godfrey 
of Bouillon, by some called commander in chief ; Baldwin , 
his brother; Robert, duke of Normandy; Hugh, count of Yer- 
mandois ; Raymond, count of Thoulouse ; Bohemond, prince 
of Tarentum ; and Tancred, his cousin. These and other 
warlike princes and captains, inspired by religious enthu- 
siasm, or military ardour, pledged themselves to redeem the 
holy sepulchre from the infidels. The troops, when reviewed 
in the neighbourhood of Nice, amounted to 100,000 horse, 
and 600,000 foot, including women and servants. 

Alexius, the eastern emperor, did not suffer them to remain 
long at Constantinople ; but after seeking to obtain an as- 



130 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

cendeiicy over them as a superior ally, he had the address to 
accelerate their departure. They at length met the Sara- 
cens, whom they overpowered by numbers. Having- twice 
defeated the enenjy, they took, after immense difficulty, losses, 
and delay, the cities of Nice, Edessa, and Antioch. 

§ Constantinople, at the period when the crusaders met there, was 
the largest and most beautiful city of Europe. The most that re- 
jnainedTof ancient elegance in manners and in arts, was included in 
that emporium. It was the mart of the worid, and the seat of em- 
pire. Though the Greeks were degenerate, yet such was the splen- 
dour of tlieir capital. 

The hardy warriors of the north, beheld with amazement, these 
scenes of magnificence and wealth, whilst they despised the effemi- 
nate manners and unwarlike character of the people. On the other 
hand, the accomplished inhabitants of Constantinople, looked upon 
the northern warriors as barbarians. They speak of them as illit- 
erate, fierce, and savage, and as nearly resembling their ancestors, 
the Goths and Vandals, who overturned the Roman empire. They 
treated their guests sometimes with respect, but oftener with the 
most hateful duplicity. 

The gold and artifices of the emperor were employed not without 
effect — most of the leaders of the Croises taking the oath of fealty 
to him as their liege lord. He was not averse to tlie destruction of 
his enemy, the Turk ; but the numbers and bravery of the warriors 
of the north, filled his bosom with jealousy. On various pretences, 
many of them were cut off in his OMai territories, and they experi- 
enced several alternatives of peace and war in the country of the 
Greeks. 

The characters of the celebrated leaders of the Croises, on this oc- 
casion, may require a passing notice. Godfrey was endowed by na- 
ture with her elioicest gifts. He possessed all the knowledge of the 
limes ; and the gentlest manners were united with the firmest spirit. 
He was capable of the grandest enterprises ; his deportment was 
moral, and his piety was fervent. To sum up his character, in 
arms he was a hero— in his closet a saint. 

The qualities of Baldwin were not so conspicuous. He was brave 
indeed, but he was ambitious ; and his courage was stained with sel- 
fishness, cruelty, and injustice. Hugh, who was brother of the 
French king, called to his side the armed pilgrims from Flanders, 
and England, and a part of France. He was a brave and accom- 
plished cavalier, but undevout, and of a proud deportment. Robert, 
who was a son of William the Conqueror, entered upon the holy 
war witli a furious and precipitate passion. He was eloquent and 
skilful, but imprudent, yielding, and voluptuous. 

Bohemond posessed neither religion nor probity ; yet to the eye of 
the vulgar, he was one of the most devoted soldiers of Christ. He 
was uitriguing, rapacious and versatile. Tancred was a corapara- 



THE CRUSADES. 13^ 

tivdy pure and brilliant spirit. He was bold and generous, and would 
thpf ^/^" ^"'^^^"^ t.^ ^11 ^^ankind, had it not bien for the sp^t of 
the age. Raymond was niexorable in his hatred of the Musselmans 
pride, selfishness and avarice tarnished his character. "''^^""^"^ ' 
The soldier pilgrims all convened on the plains of Nice. 
"There the wild Crusaders form, 

There assembled Europe stands, 
Hea\en they deem awakes the storm, 
Hell the paynims' blood demands." 

from their grasp, by secretly proposing more favourable terms tn the 
besieged, than could be expected from an enemy lmwo™d ent^r 
the city sword m hand. The soldiers clamoured ; wlje the La in 
generals, thmku.g of greater objects, dissembled tl eir Ts " st and 
endeavoured by fair persuasion, to stifle the anger of their uoops 
The conquest of Edessa, beyond the Euphrates, was achieved bv 

th^rl'^ ^^''^'^?^' ''''"l^ \^ ^^^^^^^' «0"ie fighting was necessary and 
the Christians trmmphed-much fatigue was to be bornP tn^? hi 
many of them sunk. The horrors of the way, and the' £ o ^ 
Pnrygian summer, were fatal to multitudes. Five hundred oerisld 

The siege of Antioch was protracted, nor was this whollv srr 
prising, considering the state of defence in which thl city was" 
te i ^? 'f ^ ^' ^^' '\" other hand, the unskilful operations of the 
.^Zf'.i ^^'™'f/" 'Y'' "^^"f^' ^^'^ numerous desenions from 
among them and the relaxation of their morals. The lZ cS 
put forth prodigious etforts of valour ; but the citv wa^ finMi .. t i 

^1 Jirwhl ^' ™' "if^^^cred. When the thirst of blood was 
slaked, the assassins turned robbers, and became as mercenary as 
they had been merciless. They seized all the wealth of tTeXe 
and exchanged their fierceness for the more civilized vice^ of de 
g^netl^r^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ --^ ^" -^-^^^ in^ui: 

The takmg of Antioch was very soon followed by a set battle 



132 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

with tlie Musselmans ; for the hosts of th^e Moslem world pitched 
their tents round the fallen capital. The excesses of the crusaders 
were followed by famine in its every horrid form ; and had not 
some superstitious frauds been practised, by which their zeal and 
courage were re-excited, they would have shrunk from a contest 
with the formidable army which now opposed them under the ex- 
citements of religion ; however, they met it, and triumphed in the 
aifray. 

4. The Croises pursued their successes, and after various 
desertions and delays they penetrated to Jerusalem. This 
venerable city, which had been so often destroyed and rebuilt, 
was taken by storm after a siege of six wrecks, and the whole 
of its inhabitants, both Mahometans and Jews, w^ere barba- 
rously put to the sword, 1099 A. C. Tlie crusaders w^ere by 
this time reduced to a very inconsiderable number. Of the 
700.000 that appeared before Nice, 40,000 only encamped 
around Jerusalem. Of these, only 21,500 were soldiers. In- 
cluding the rabble of Peter, the possession of Nice, Edessa, 
and Antioch, had cost the lives of more than 8-50,000 Euro- 
peans. 

§ The victories of the Crusaders were gained Mdth difficulty. 
After the capture of Antioch, their embarrassments were not a 
few. Alexius had acted a cowardly and perfidious part. Hugh, 
count of Vermandois, soon abandoned the holy cause, and returned 
to France. The march of the Christian forces was purposely 
delayed several months, by the commanders, although the soldiers 
were impatient to proceed to Jerusalem. This delay, however, was 
attended by the most serious evils. Discord prevailed among the 
princes — rapine and theft among the people. A pestilence spread 
throughout their hosts, which, in a few months, destroyed more 
than one hundred thousand persons. In the mean time, several 
wars of ambition were waged, in the neighbouring provinces. The 
forces which attacked the town of Marra, were so urged by famine, 
that many of the soldiers turned cannibals, and devoured the flesh 
of their enemies, whom they massacred with the utmost cruelty. 

At length, the Christian warriors set their faces towards the holy 
city. When it came in view, every heart glowed with rapture — 
every eye was suffused with tears. The joy of a moment out- 
weighed years of sorrow. In their heated imaginations, the sepul- 
chre was redeemed, and the cross triumphed over the crescent. But 
the anticipation of success was much easier than the reality. The 
most strenuous exertions were necessary, and the enthusiasm and 
valour of the Christians were carried to the greatest height. After 
several alternations of partial victory and defeat, the walls of the 
sacred city were carried, and all Jerusalem was in possession of the 
cliampions of the cross. The blood of the Saracens attested the 
ferocity of the victory, and the price at which their conquest was 



THE CRUSADES. * 133 

obtained. Ten thousand of the vanquished were butchered in the 
mosque of Omar alone, to which they had fled as a sacred asylum. 
In this place, the croises are said to have ridden in the blood of the 
Saracens up to the knees of their horses. Ten thousand, or accord- 
ing to some, a much larger number, were massacred in the streets^ 
The Christians committed these dreadful deeds from principle rather 
than from passion. It was a horrid principle indeed ; but intoler- 
ance was unhappily the spirit of the age. 

5. With considerable foresight, the conquerors of Jerusalem 
established a Christian kingdom in the heart of Palestine. 
An extension of territory was indispensable to the security of 
the city from the Mussulman hordes that surrounded it. At 
the head of this kingdom, Godfrey, the most worthy of tlie 
heroes of Christendom, was placed by the suffrages of the 
Christians. He reigned however but one year, during which 
time he defeated the sultan with an immense army at Asca- 
lon. At the expiration of the year, he was compelled to give 
up his kingdom to the pope's legate. Several kings reigned 
after him, but their history need not be told. 

An impolitic act of the crusaders, by which their power was 
weakened, was, at length, the division of Syria and Palestine 
into four separate states. Having accomplished their object, 
they began to return to Europe ; but in proportion as they 
withdrew, the Turks recovered their strength. The crusa- 
ders, who remained in Asia, found themselves so surrounded 
by foes, that they were at last obliged to soHcit aid from Chris- 
tendom. 

§ The fruits of this first crusade ill repaid its immense loss and ex- 
pense, and were comprised within the small territory of Jerusalem, 
the dominion of which was bounded by the term of eighty years. 
The holy war, nevertheless, continued to be recommended bj' 
the pope and the clergy with unabated earnestness. It was still re- 
presented to be the cause of the Son of God, an engagement in which 
^vas the most meritorious of all acts, and insured salvation, whether 
in the success or defeat. 

6. The aid which was needed in the East was soon afford- 
ed. Europe sent forth a second crusade in 1147. St. Ber- 
nard, who was the great oracle of the age, had the influence 
to excite Louis VII. of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, 
to undertake the defence of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Three 
hundred thousand of their subjects assumed the cross. The 
issue of this enterprise was disastrous in the extreme. 

Manuel, the emperor of the Greeks, gave intelligence of their 
plans to the Turkish sultan, and provided them with treache- 

12 



134 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

r 

reus g-uides. The army of Conrad, which took the lead, fell 
first into the snare. Those who did not perish by hunger in 
the deserts, fell into the jaws of the Musselmans. Only a 
tenth part secured their retreat to the army of Louis. Louis, 
also duped by the Grecian emperor, advanced through the 
same country to a similar fate. In the defile of a mountain near 
Laodicea, his army was totally defeated. 

At Jerusalem, these unfortunate monarchs met to lament 
their sad reverses of fortune. The feeble remains of the mighty 
armies which they had led, were joined to the Christian pow- 
ers of Syria, and a fruitless siege of Damascus was the final 
effort of the second crusade. 

§ A few particulars may be given respecting the preacher of the se- 
cond crusade. St. Bernard, by the superiority of his talents, and also 
of his consideration in the eyes of Europe, was far more capable than 
Peter the Hermit, of exciting enthusiastic emotions. His ardent and 
religious mind soon disdained the follies of youth ; and casting off the 
desire of celebrity as a writer of poetry and songs, he wandered in the 
regions of spiritual reverie, or trod the rough and thorny paths of 
polemical theology. 

At the age of 23, he embraced the monastic life, and soon after- 
wards founded the monastery of Clairvaux, in Champaigne. His 
miraculous eloquence separated sons from their fathers, and husbands 
from their wives. His earnestness and self-denial in religion, gained 
him the reverence of his contemporaries, and in disputes he was 
appealed to as an incorruptible judge. Such was his austerity, 
that happening once to fix liis eyes on a female face, he immediately 
reflected that this was a temptation, and running to a pond he leap- 
ed up to his neck into the water, which was of an icy coldness, to 
punish himself and vanquish the enemy. 

Such a man was the fit tool of the pope, Eugenius HI., who order- 
ed him to travel through France and Germany, and to preach a 
plenary indulgence to those who would, under the banners of their 
kings, bend their way towards the holy land. As Peter had repre- 
sented the scandal of suffering the sacred places to remain in ihe 
hands of the infidels, the eloquent Bernard thundered from the pul- 
pit the disgrace of allowing a land, which had been recovered from 
pollution, to sink into it again. This voice raised armies and depo- 
pulated cities. According to his own expression, " the towns were 
deserted, or, the only people that were in them were widows and 
orphans, whose husbands and fathers were yet living." 

7. The state of the holy land between the second and 
third crusades deserves a passing notice. A feeble sway waa 
held by most of the chiefs of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The 
death of Baldwin IIL, however, was lamented as a public 
calamity. His successors were Almeric, Baldwin IV., and 



THE CRUSADES. 135 

Guy de Liisignan. The miseries of war were often expe- 
rienced from their Musselman enemies. It was during this 
period, that the celebrated Saladin, nephew of the Sultan of 
Egypt, attained the height of his glory, and became lord of that 
country. He formed the design of recovering Palestine from 
the Christians. 

8. The occasion of the third crusade was, the success of Sa- 
ladin against the Latins in Jerusalem. He had previously 
subdued Tiberias, and received the submission of Acre, Jaffa, 
and some other places. Jerusalem offered an obstinate resist- 
ance, but in vain. The city was taken after a siege of a few 
days, and Guy de Lusignan was made prisoner, 1187 A. C, 
The conqueror treated the inhabitants with singular clemency. 
The infidels were now once more established in the city of the 
prophets. 

§ The conquered Latins, on being obliged to leave Jerusalem, con- 
sumed four days in weeping over and embracing the holy sepulchre. 
The women entreated the conqueror to release to them their fathers, 
husbands, and brothers. With courteous clemency Saladin released 
all the prisoners whom they requested, and loaded them with pre- 

y. i ne conquests eneciea oy me iiinueis, iineu rjurope wim 
grief, and almost with despair. The losses occasioned by the 
former crusades, had rather dismayed the public mind. Small 
masses of men continued indeed to move towards the East, 
but it required a degree of management and much exhorta- 
tion to wake up a general interest in favour of a third crusade. 
Pope Clement HI. at length prevailed on three sovereigns to 
engage in the holy enterprise. These Avere Philip Augustus, 
of France, Richard L, surnamed the Lion-hearted, and Fre- 
derick Barbarossa, of Germany. 

The forces of Phihp and Richard are computed at one hun- 
dred thousand soldiers ; it does not appear how many follow- 
ed the standard of Frederick. The latter, in passing through 
the Greek empire, Avas prudent and humane, although the 
haughtiness and duplicity of the emperor Isaac Angelus, sub- 
jected him to much inconvenience. The Germans defeated 
the Turks in a general engagement, and took Iconium. But 
unfortunately, their sovereign lost his life in consequence of 
bathing in the river Calycadnus. After the death of Barba- 
rossa. his army dwindled to a small number. 



136 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

The English and French, for a short time, proceeded har- 
moniously in the career of victory. They took Acre, a place 
of great strength. Soon, however, the bitter feehngs of mi- 
litary envy and national hatred began to be excited, the con- 
sequence of which was, that the French monarch returned 
home, leaving a portion of his army under the command of 
Richard. Left alone to sustain the contest, Plantagenet dis- 
played all the heroism of chivalry. He found himself at the 
head of nearly thirty thousand French, German, and Enghsh 
soldiers. With this force he defeated the illustrious Saladin, 
near the plains of Ascalon. Political disturbances in England, 
made Richard sohcitous to return thither, especially, as his 
ranks were now thinned by disease and famine. With this 
object in view, he concluded a favourable treaty with his ene- 
my, and attempted to return to his dominions. In passing 
through Germany, however, unaccompanied by his troops, he 
was seized by the order of the duke of Austria, and made 
prisoner. It was not until after a long captivity, and the pay- 
ment of an immense ransom, that he was restored to his na- 
tiyejand. Not long after the departure of Richard, Saladin 

§In the treaty which was formed between Richard and Saladin, 
the Christian monarch, and the sultan of Egypt, interchanged ex- 
pressions of esteem. The grasping of each other's hands, was the 
only and sufficient pledge of fidelity. A truce was agreed upon for 
three years and eight months ; the fort of Ascalon was to be destroy- 
ed ; but Jaffa and Tyre, with the country between them, were to be 
surrendered to the Christians. 

In leaving Palestine, Richard, with his queen, embarked in a ship; 
but the violence of a tempest dispersed his fleet, and so shat- 
tered the vessel he was in, that it became impossible for him to 
reach England in that way. He then made for Germany ; but his 
person was endangered as he travelled the country, since the fact of 
his being there became known to some of his enemies. After va- 
rious escapes, he arrived at a town near Vienna. Two individuals 
only were with him, one of whom was a boy, who understood the 
German language. 

The party were too harassed to proceed. The German boy was 
sent to the market-place to purchase provisions. Through the libe- 
rality of his master, he was so neatlv and elegantly dressed, that the 
people could not but notice him. The consequence was that he was 
questioned, and giving unsatisfactory answers, he was seized and 
scourged. Being at length threatened with the cutting out of his 
tongue, if he did not tell the truth, he was obliged reluctantly to dis- 
close the secret of the real quality of his master. 



THE CRUSADES. 137 

Richard was immediately secured, and though at first treated 
with respect, was soon confined in prison. Being sold at length to 
the emperor, Henry VI. removed him to a castle in the Tyrol. But 
the strongest walls are not sufficiently secure for the fears of a ty- 
rant. Armed men were sent into his chamber, and commanded to 
watch him with the utmost strictness. 

Here, sometimes, the royal captive calmed his angry soul, by sing- 
ing the warlike deeds of the heroes of romance. At other times, he 
diverted melancholy by the composition of poems. Occasionally, 
he forgot his misfortunes, and the apparent negligence of his friends. 
His native hilarity conquered the bitterness of his spirit ; he laugh- 
ed at the frequent intoxication of his gaolers, he sported the keen- 
ness of his wit, and in the boisterousness of his merriment, displayed 
his personal strength and agility. 

At the request of his mother, the queen Eleanora, the Pope inter- 
fered for his release ; and, after a trial on some pretended crime, it 
was concluded to ransom the English monarch, as though he had 
been a prisoner of war, the English people paying about 150,000 
marks of silver to the German emperor. 

10. By the energy of Richard, Palestine was saved from 
becoming a Mussulman colony ; and so much of the sea coast 
was in the hands of the Christians, and so enfeebled was the 
enemy, that it was safe to commence liostilities, whenever 
Europe should again pour forth her religious and military fa- 
natics. This event was not long delayed, notwithstanding 
the infinite losses and suflferings, which had hitherto resulted 
from the crusades. 

A fourth crusade was fitted out in 1202, by Baldwin, count 
of Flanders, who collected an army of the Flemish and 
French, professedly to attack the Mahometans, though it 
seems to have found another enemy. Like the other crusa- 
ders, he made the eastern Christians fiirst feel the effect of 
European adventure and military enthusiasm. Indeed, his 
efforts ended here ; for, arriving at Constantinople, at a time 
when there was a dispute for the succession, his interference 
afforded the occasion of plundering the city, and securing the 
possession of the imperial throne of the East. The Venetians 
lent their vessels for the enterprise, and participated in it. 

§ Some historians reckon a crusade anterior to the war carried on 
by Baldwin, denominating his the fifth. There were expeditions 
from Germany in the intermediate time ; but it may be doubtful 
whether they deserve the name of a distinct crusade. Indeed, there 
were so many different expeditions, some public and others private, 
that the designation of a certain number of separate crusades, seems 
somewhat arbitrary. According to the common accounts, we have 

12* 



138 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

assigned the name of the fourth crusade, to the expedition of which 
the count of Flanders was the leader. 

The third crusade was created by the ordinary influence of papal 
power and royal authority ; but the fourth sprang from genuine 
fanaticism. Fulk, who was worthy of companionship with Ber- 
nard, became a preacher distinguished by the vehemence with which 
he declaimed against certain vices of the age. With his celebrity, 
increased his desire to be generally useful to mankind. The natu- 
ral consequence in that superstitious age, was, that he turned his 
eye towards the east, and assumed the cross. The copious matter 
of his sermons was the war with the infidels. Around the man 
of God, all classes thronged, and thousands were eager to assume 
the insignia of holy warriors. Nor was Pope Innocent III. inactive 
in the cause, having required the various temporal and spiritual 
chiefs of Christendom to take up arms for the defence of Palestine, 
or at least to send him considerable succours of men and money. 

Application having been made to the Venetians for the loan of 
their ships, and the Venetians themselves desiring to embark in the 
enterprise, the croises at length set sail for Constantinople. That 
proud city, once the sister and rival of Rome, was fallen so low, 
that the aid of the western barbarians was invoked by a claimant to 
the throne of the Caesars. In his behalf, war against the Greek em- 
pire was resolved on, and Constantinople was made the point of 
attack. The particulars of the assault need not be given, but it is 
a striking account drawn up by an old writer, that when the inva- 
ders, at the distance of three leagues, beheld the city, " the magni- 
tude and splendour of Constantinople awed the courage of the 
bravest ; and not without reason, for never since the creation of the 
world, had so bold an enterprise been undertaken by so small a 
force." The Greeks made a display of numbers and strength, but 
the nerves and soul of war were not in them. The partisans of the 
usurper, Alexius, made only a feeble defence, and soon abandoned 
the city to its fate. The city was captured, and the young Alexius 
Silt on the throne. 

After one or two revolutions in the government, the allied army 
of French and Venetians, who had been paid the tribute which they 
required, and had been kept in the vicinity of Constantinople, deter- 
mined to seize the city on their own account. This, after a severe 
struggle, was effected ; and a severe struggle it ought to have been 
on the part of the invaders, when only 20,000 men captured the 
largest city in the world. There were 400,000 men capable of bear- 
ing arms in Constantinople. The excesses of the barbarians were 
enormous. To their eternal infamy, they destroyed most of the re- 
mains of the noble monuments of genius, in the sculpture and sta- 
tuary of the Pagan world. In no conquered city, it is thought, was 
there ever obtained so much booty. One historian remarks, that the 
gold and silver, the silk, the gems, and precious stones, and all 
tliose things which are accounted riches, were found in more abun- 
dance than all the Latin world could furnish." 



THE CRUSADES. 139 

11. Baldwin, as the reward of his success against the capi- 
tal of the East, Avas invested with the Roman purple, 1204. 
But he was dethroned and murdered, after a reign of a few 
months. The Imperial dominions were shared among the 
principal leaders ; the Venetians obtained the Isle of Candia, 
as their portion. By the acquisition of Constantinople, the 
injuries of the crusaders were avenged ; and, for the present, 
they looked for no other conquest. The dominion of the La- 
tins, however, lasted but fifty-seven years. Few events on 
the page of history have been equally curious and interesting, 
with the estabhshment of this people in the city of Constan- 
tine. 

12. In the former part of the thirteenth century, succeed- 
ing the crusade against the Greek empire, several expeditions 
were fitted out against the Musselmans. In these, the Ger- 
mans, Hungarians, French, English, and Italians, were prin- 
cipally concerned. Their object seems to have been, not so 
much Palestine, as Egypt. Success crowned their efforts at 
first, and one of the expeditions, under the duke of Austria, 
captured Damietta, an event which filled the Musselman em- 
pire with alarm ; but the mortality of the country, and tlie 
let urn of many of the European soldiers, with other causes, 
finally rendered the acquisitions of the crusaders, in that coun- 
try, of no avail, and the unbelievers still retained their power. 

13. The fifth and last of these extraordinary expeditions 
against the infidel world, was led by Louis IX. of France. 
There had been previously a few smaller adventures, espe- 
cially by the English, who had the good fortune to redeem 
the holy sepulchre. But it was soon lost, and the fears of tlite 
Christian world were in a degree aroused. It was, however, 
ol^vious that the crusading spirit in Europe had at length be- 
gan to languish, and it would at this crisis have entirely died 
away, had not Louis felt the strong stirrings of fanaticism and 
chivalry. He kept it alive a few years, after which, this folly 
of a dark and barbarous age Avas heard of no more. 

The warhke heroism and religious devotion of the French 
monarch, commanded the reverence of mankind. Indeed, in 
many respects, he was an amiable and estimable prince, though 
deeply imbued with the unworthy superstition of the times. 
His effoits preserved to the Christians, for a time, the land of 
Palestine, which was in danger, not from the Saracens, but 



140 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. 

from the Tartars. This fierce people were then pouring over 
the face of Asia. 

Louis spent three years in preparation, when he set out for 
Palestine, with his queen, three brothers, and a powerful train 
of French knights, 1248 A. C. He had greatly encouraged 
the fainting hearts of the Christians in Palestine, by the men 
and troops he had sent thither before his own departure. The 
invasion of Egypt was his first object. Here, he lost one half 
of his army by sickness, was defeated in battle, and fell a 
prisoner into the hands of his enemy. 

After ransoming himself and his followers, he proceeded to 
the Holy Land, in which he continued a considerable time. 
On his return, to France, he devoted himself, wisely, to the 
regular cares of government, during thirteen years, and would 
probably have long continued useful and happy, had not the 
mad spirit of crusading seized him again. In obedience to 
its dictates, he embarked on a crusade against the Moors in 
Africa. In this adventure, he and the greater part of his 
army perished, in consequence of a pestilence. Louis has 
been honoured with the title of saint. 

§ History records, that on the subject of crusading, the mind of 
Louis was influenced by the following circumstance. Agreeably to 
the temper of the times, he had vowed, whilst afllicted by a severe 
illness, that in case of recovery he would travel to the holy land. 
In the delirium of his fever he had beheld an engagement between 
the Christians and the Saracens ; the infidels were victorious, and 
the brave king of a valiant nation fancied himself called upon to 
avenge the defeat. 

The following incident indicated the king's zeal for a crusade. 
One night, during the Christmas festival, Louis caused magnificent 
crosses, fabricated by goldsmiths, to be sewn on the new dresses, 
which, as usual upon such occasions, had been bestowed upon the 
courtiers. The next day the cavaliers were surprised at the religious 
ornaments that had been affixed to their cloaks ; piety and loyalty 
combined to prevent them from renouncing the honours which had 
been thrust upon them, and the good king obtained the title of the 
Imnter for pilgrims and fisher of men. 

Louis could have adopted the lines of a French rhymer of the 
thirteenth century. 

" Lo, now the fruitful hour at hand ! 
To thee the precious boon is given, 
For Paynims waste the holy land, 
And spoil the heritage of heaven. 
Shall we such faithless works behold, 
With craven courage slack and cold 7 
How else, but to the Giver's praise, 
May we devote our wealth and days. 



THE CRUSADES. 141 

The French, on landing in Egypt, captured Damietta ; but the 
rashness of the Count d'Artois was the means of checking 
them in the career of victory. Sad reverses soon ensued, and 
though Louis defended himself with the greatest bravery, he was 
obliged to yield to the enemy. Being taken prisoner with his army, 
he offered for his own ransom the city of Damietta, and for the de- 
liverance of his soldiers 500,000 livres. One fifth part of the latter 
was remitted through the generosity of the sultan. 

In Louis' second expedition against the infidels, he was joined by 
the English ; so that his force amounted to sixty thousand men. 
His fleet being driven into Sardinia, a change was made in the de- 
sign of the pilgrim hero, and an attack upon the Musselman Moors 
of Africa was fixed upon. Pestilence, however, prevented the me- 
ditated blow, and the great stay of the crusades fell. 

The English portion of the forces, which had not reached Africa, 
when the death of Louis took place, made their way to Palestine, 
under the conduct of Prince Edward. Feats of arms were per- 
formed; but the Turks were fast overunning the holy land, and 
with the capture of Acre, by that adventurous people, was connected 
the final loss of a country, on which the eyes of fanatical Europe 
had been fastened for more than two hundred years. 

14. Among the causes of the decline and cessation of the 
fanatical mihtary spirit of Europe, may be enumerated tlte 

^-"j — --"«•- xj\rr iVio Aanmuaa f\f thc^ »-nnral influence of the pOpCS, 

and the mcrease of their tyranny, which the people were loth 
to bear — the avarice of the popes and priests, in converting to 
their own purposes the funds which were raised to support the 
holy wars — the consequent unwillingness of the people to be 
taxed — the scandal which was cast on the crusades, when 
many of the soldiers of the cross were diverted from their re- 
hgious purpose, to promote the secular objects of the court of 
Rome — and most of all, the. increasing conviction on the part 
of the people, that no lasting conquest of Palestine could be 
made by the sovereigns of Europe. These causes were too 
powerful even for the deep darkness and superstition of the 
age, ambition, love of military achievement, and desire of 
plunder. 

15. Various opinions have been formed and maintained 
respecting the tendency and effects of the crusades. By some, 
they are thought to have benefitted Europe on the whole— 
by others, they are supposed to have been positively disadvan- 
tageous. We incline to the latter opinion. They who look 
upon the crusades in a favourable light in respect to their con- 
sequences, nevertheless admit, that they were immediately 



142 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

distressing and pernicious. It is in the final result that they 
imagine the crusades to have been beneficial on the whole. 
In tJie final result, it has been maintained that they improved 
tlje political condition, the manners and customs, the naviga- 
tion and commerce, the hterature, and the religion of Europe. 

That there was a very gradual amelioration of the wes- 
tern nations in the above particulars, is admitted. But this 
was a state of things, which it is natural to believe, time 
might have produced, aided as it was by other causes. In- 
deed, from the nature of the convulsions which attended, or ra- 
ther constituted the crusades, it is certain that they must have 
tended to retard the progress of society, learning, and religion, 
so far as they produced any effect. That they were not pro- 
ductive of any good, in any shape, it would be hazardous to 
assert. But providence can overrule the greatest evil, so that 
it shall be less evil than it would otherwise be; and our point 
is made out, if the evil flowing from the crusades overbalan- 
ces the good, in quality or amount. 

Let any one who doubts this, reflect that the crusades 
were the oflfepring of a dark and ignorant age— that they 
were. Innrllprl hy tho fnlc-^ f^.-^. ^f fox^r^f^^:^^^ ^^a »- ^ -•-=-. 

'and moreover, were perverted, if so base a project could be 
perverted, by ambition, love of military renown, and a savage 
desire of plunder. They agitated, convulsed, and distressed 
Europe, and every family in Europe, for two centuries. They 
drained that portion of tlie globe of men and money, to an in- 
supportable degree. The bones of two millions of Europeans 
were entombed in Asia, or whitened her plains. The trea- 
sures that were expended are past computation. Under the 
sacred name of rehgion, every crime and every folly was me- 
ditated and com.mitted. The path of the fanatical warriors 
of the west was every w^here marked with blood. They were 
too stupid and too superstitious to regard with complacency 
01* with a desire of imitation, those superior modes of life and 
specimens of genius which they met with in their excursions 
into the East. They even laid their sacrilegious hands on the 
monuments of ancient art, which chance or bravery put into 
their power, and in the repeated conflagrations of Constanti- 
nople, they rejoiced to see, in many instances, the destruction 
of those works, the remains of which the world has since 
been proud to own, 



FRANCE. 143 

They err, who count it glorious to subdue 
By conquest far and vnde, to over-run 
Large countries, and in field groat battles win, 
Great cities by assaults : what do these worthies, 
But rob and spoil, burn, slaughter and enslave 
Peaceable nations. * * * ♦ 

" A view of the heroic ages of Christianity," says an interesting 
historian, "in regard to their grand and general results, is a useful 
and important, though a melancholy employment. The Crusades 
retarded the march of civilization, thickened the clouds of ignorance 
and superstition, and encouraged intolerance, cruelty and fierceness. 
Religion lost its mildness and charity ; and war its mitigating quali- 
ties of honour and courtesy. Such were the bitter fruits of the Ho- 
ly Wars. We can follow with sympathy, both the deluded fanatic, 
and the noble adventurer in arms, in their wanderings and marches 
through foreign regions, braving the most frightful dangers, patient 
in toil, invincible in military spirit. So visionary was the object, so 
apparently remote from selfish relations, that their fanaticism wears 
a character of generous virtue. The picture, however, becomes 
darkened, and nature recoils with horror from their cruelties, and 
with shame from their habitual folly and senselessness." 

FRANCE. 

16. In 1108 the throne of France was ascended by Louis 
VI., surnamed the fat. son of Philip I. He carried on a war 
with Henry I. of England, but was not successful. The 
English defeated his army at the battle of Brenneville, 1119 
A. C. He was an accomplished and energetic sovereign. 

§ In Louis' flight after the battle, an Englishman seized his horse's 
bridle, exclaiming, " the king is taken." "The king is never taken," 
said Louis, "not even in a game of chess," and then struck his ene- 
my dead at his feet. 

17. Louis YII., the young, succeeded his father in 1137. 
The extent of his reign was 46 years. He quarrelled with 
the Pope about the nomination of an avchhishop, and had 
his kingdom put under an interdict. He was very unsuc- 
cessfully engaged in the holy wars, and in consequence of 
having divorced his queen, heiress of the great dutchy of 
Guienne, who soon married Henry Plantagenet, (afterwards 
Henry TI. of England) he lost one fifth part of the French 
monarojiy, including the provinces before held by the En- 
ghsh. 

§ Louis was educated in an Abbey, and the Abbeys at this period 
produced several distinguished men, among whom were Suger, his 
minister, a man of great political sagacity 5 St. Bernard, whose agen- 



144 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

cy in the second crusade has already appeared; and Abelard, whose 
story remains to be told. , . ^ . 

In conformity to the spirit of the age, and his own education, Louis 
made several pilgrimages, and among others visited the tomb of Tho- 
mas a Becket, at Canterbury. In one of these pilgrimages he died. 
His tomb, in the abbey of Barbeau, was opened in 1556, by Charles 
IX., and the body found in a high state of preservation. On the fin- 
gers were several gold rings, which, having been taken off, were 
worn by Charles, together with a gold chain, which was found in 
the tomb. 

18. The son of Louis, Philip II., surnamed AiigustuSj 
ascended the throne in 1180. His reign was a long one also, 
being 43 years. Since the days of Charlemagne, France 
had seen no sovereign so ambitious and enterprising in war, 
as Philip. The most signal events of his reign, were his 
expulsion of the Jews from France ; his engagement in the 
tliird crusade, with Richard Coeur de Lion ; his invasion ol 
Normandy during Richard's absence ; his victory over Otho 
IV., emperor of Germany ; and the offer of the crown of 
England to him for his son Louis, by the English barons. 

§ His engagement in the third crusade has already appeared. On 
the return of Richard to England, a disastrous war ensued between 
him and Philip, the English king determining to punish him for 
seizing Normandy. Richard, dying during the prosecution of this 
war, was succeeded by his brother John, whose pretensions to the 
crown of England were, however, disputed by his nephew, Arthur^ 
aided by Philip. Arthur having been made prisoner, and put to 
death by his inhuman uncle, the latter was summoned by Philip, to 
appear in his quality as duke of Normandy, before a tribunal of his 
peers. On his refusal, Philip attacked and subdued several of the 
French provinces that were then held by the English, and united 
Normandy to the crown of France, 300 years after it had been detach- 
ed from it by the incapacity of Charles the simple. 

From the reign of Philip, may be dated the Inquisition, 
which was first established in France, wdience it found its 
way into Italy, Spain, and Portugal. 

19. Louis VIII., surnamed the Lion, mounted the throne 
of his father in 1223, and died in 1226. He w^as a man of 
valour, and hence his surname. He took all the possessions 
of the English on the continent, as far as the Garonne. His 
character was that of a persecutor. 

§ Louis prosecuted a barbarous crusade against certain sectaries in 
Languedoc and Gascony, who presumed to attack the dogmas of 
the Church of Rome. At the siege of Avignon, he was poisoned 
by the count of Champaign. 



FRANCE. 145 

20. Louis IX.5 st34ed Saint, Louis, became king at the age 
of twelve years, in 1226, under the regency of iiis mother. 
Louis possessed many excellent quaUties — was pious, upright, 
and benevolent. His single fault was fanaticism ; though in 
every thing he did, the purity of his motive was conspicuous. 
He conferred a considerable benefit on his country, notwitii- 
standing the errors into which his fanatical spirit led him. 
With Henry HI. of England, he waged a successful war, 

§ An account lias been given of the two crusades in which he was 
so unfortunately engaged, and in the last of which he perished. 

Henry III. demanded the provinces which, it seems, Louis' father 
had promised to restore. A tender was made of Poitou, and of the 
best part of Normandy ; but this did not satisfy Henry, who resolv- 
ed to try the issue of a battle, in which he was defeated. 

21. Philip ni., surnamed the Bold, succeeded his father in 
1270. His surname, it is thought, was not well deserved. 
He was the dupe of the artifices of his courtiers, and had no 
predominant trait, except a passion for amassing wealth. He 
brought back from Africa the miserable remains of his 
father's army. He died on his return from an expedition 
against Peter III., of Arragon, who had usurped the kingdom 
of Sicily, and through whose instigation, eight thousand 
Frenchmen were massacred in that island. 

§ Charles of Anjou, uncle of Philip, had lately become king of 
Sicily, and acted the tyrant towards its inhabitants. By a deed of 
cruelty towards a brother of the wife of Peter, he made the latter 
his enemy. Peter, in revenge, excited the Sicilians to revolt and 
murder. All the French of the island were, by a previous concert, 
butchered in cool blood, on tlae evening of Easterday. Philip un- 
dertook to avenge this massacre, but the general failure of the ex- 
pedition, afflicted the French king so much, that he fell into a de- 
cay, of which he died. 

22. Phihp IV., the Fair, ascended the throne of his an- 
cestors, in 1285. He was remarkable for his personal beauty 
and accomplishments. His disposition, however, was sin- 
gularly contrasted with his features and form. He was am- 
bitious, deceitful, perfidious and cruel. Refusing to obey the 
summons of the Roman pontiff, Boniface VIIL, to march 
against the Saracens, he was excommunicated, and his king- 
dom laid under an interdict. A severe contest ensued, the 
result of which was the humiliation of the Pope, and even- 
tually his death. 

In 1314, Philip suppressed the order of the Knights Temp- 

13 



146 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD VI. 

lars, fiom a desire, it was thought, to obtain their immense 
wealth. 

§ The haughty Boniface, in a bull, had declared, that " the Vicar of 
Christ is vested with full authority over the kings and kingdoms of 
the earth." Philip, in return for the indignity put upon him, de- 
nounced Boniface as an impostor, heretic, and simoniac, and declar- 
ed the see of Rome vacant. He contrived also, by means of a trusty 
agent, to seize the person of the pope. The persons concerned in 
the transaction, caused his holiness to ride on a horse without sad- 
dle or bridle, with his face turned towards his tail. He was, how^ 
ever, rescued at length ; but the loss of his immense treasures^ 
while he was detained from his palace, threw him into a frenzy 
that killed him. 

ENGLAND. 

23. Norman family^ Plantagenets. The throne of Eng- 
land, on the death of Rufus, was secured by his youngei 
brother, Henry I., surnamed Beauclerc, or the Scholar, 1100. 
The rightful heir was Robert, an older brother ; but as he 
was absent on a crusade, Henry availed himself of so favoura- 
ble an opportunity to till the vacant throne. 

Robert, who ^vas duke of Normandy, soon arrived in Eng- 
land to claim his right ; but he w^as prevailed upon to forego 
it, by the offer of a sum of money. Still, Henry was not 
satisfied, but ere long invaded Normandy ; and at last defeat- 
ed Robert, brought him prisoner to England, caused his 
eyes to be burned out, and confined him for life, in a castle 
in Wales. 

The injustice with which he had treated Robert, seems to 
have been visited upon him by tlie hand of Providence, in 
the calamities of his after life ; paiticularly in the death of his 
only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy 
to England. 

Henry was one of the most accomplished of the Enghsh 
sovereigns — brave, affable, and learned ; but his conduct in 
many instances, shew^ed that he was w^anting in moderation, 
puiity, and gratitude. 

§ Henry married a Saxon princess, Matilda, great grand-daughter 
of Edmund Ironside, and thus united the Saxon and Norman blood. 
This circumstance endeared him to the English, and procured their 
support. 

The story of the death of Henry's son, whose name was William, 
is briefly the following. The captain and seamen of the vessel ia 



ENGLAND. 147 

which he set sail for England, becoming intoxicated, carelessly struck 
her upon a rock. She foundered immediately, but William was 
saved by being put into a long-boat. He had already got clear of 
the wreck, when hearing the cries of his natural sister, the countess 
of Perche, he ordered the seamen to row back, in hopes of saving 
her. But the numbers who then crowded in, soon sunk the boat ; 
and the prince with all his retinue perished. 

The effect of the news on Henry was melancholy indeed. He 
fainted away, and during the remainder of his life, was never known 
to smile. 

24. Henry's cousin, Stephen, earl of Blois, was crowned 
king of England, 1135. His popularity enabled him to usurp 
the throne, when of right it belonged to the empress Matilda, 
or Maud, and her son Henry. 

§ Matilda first married Henry V., emperor of Germany — afterwards 
Flenry Plantagenet, earl of Anjou. By the latter she had several 
children, of whom Henry was the oldest. 

In behalf of Matilda, the earl of Gloucester, natural bro- 
ther of the empress, took up arms against Stephen, defeated 
him in the battle of Lincoln, and made him prisoner. But 
the fortune of war soon turned against Gloucester. He was 
defeated in the battle of Winchester, and taken prisoner, 
but was exchanged for the king. 

Four years after this event, young prince Henry, son of 
Maud, invaded England ; but the great men on both sides, 
fearing the consequences of a battle, compelled the rival 
princes to a negociation. The succession was secured to 
Henry, after the death of Stephen. This event taking place 
the next year, Henry became king. 

Stephen was well calculated to be an efficient sovereign ; 
but he reigned under unfavourable circumstances, and his 
elevation brought suffering on himself and his people. Dur- 
ing his whole reign, England was rent with civil broils. 

§ From the beginning, Stephen dreaded Robert, earl of Glouces- 
ter, a man of honour and abilities, and zealously attached to Maud. 
He took, indeed, the oath of fealty to Stephen ; but he took it with 
the reserve, that the king should never invade any of his rights or 
dignities. This was an example for others ; and many of the cler- 
gy and nobility, as the price of submission, required the right of 
fortifying their castles. England was soon filled with fortresses, 
and the power of the aristocracy rose to a formidable height. 

2.5. Henry II. succeeded to the throne in 1154. He was 
the first of the Plantagenets who wielded the sceptre, till 
the time of Henry IV. In him was mingled the blood 



1.4S MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

of the Saxon kings of England, and of the Norman family. 
He was the most powerful monarch of Christendom. His do- 
minions were more extensive than those of any of his pre- 
decessors, as, in addition to England, he owned by inheritance 
and by marriage, nearly one half of France, and afterwards 
claimed Iieland by conquest. 

Happy in the affections of his people, he had the prospect 
of a prosperous reign ; but though England owed her first 
permanent improvements in arts, laws, government, and civil 
liberty, to his measures, he was personally subjected to many 
calamities. A most serious misfortune, was his contention 
with Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury. This 
arrogant ecclesiastic, a man of great talents and greater am- 
bition, availed himself of the authority of his station, to ex- 
alt the spiritual power above the crown ; and w^hen the king 
undertook the reformation of the clergy, and to limit their 
prerogatives, he met with the most determined opposition from 
Becket. In the course of the contention, the ecclesiastic was 
killed. The horror excited in Henry's mind by this event, 
aided by the agitation into which England was thrown, led 
him to perform the most humiliating penance at the tomb of 
the saint. 

§ Becket was first promoted by the king, to the dignity of chan- 
cellor of England, to which station his talents and learning entitled 
him. Henry afterwards appointed him to fill the high place of me- 
tropohtan, falsely supposing that from his gay and splendid turn, he 
would not be attached to ecclesiastical privileges. But no sooner was 
he in his new situation, than he affected personally the greatest aus- 
terity, and recited continually, prayers and pious lectures, maintain- 
ing his ancient pomp only in his retinue and attendants. In all this, 
his determination to exalt the spiritual power, wels visible to sagacious 
observers. 

That power was already too great. The ecclesiastics of that age 
had renounced all immediate subjection to the magistrate ; and as 
many of them were of low character, they committed the most de- 
testable crimes with impunity. They Avere charged even with the 
foulest murders. The attempts of the king to put this order of men 
mto a better state, resulted in what are called the Constitutions of 
Clarendon. These were the decisions of a general council of the 
nobiUty and prelates ^at Clarendon, in which, the Mmits between the 
civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, are distinctly marked, and which, 
^yjjhs king's influence, were framed so as to favour his prerogatives. 

The clergy, generally, professed to submit to these decisions, but 
Becket stood aloof: and though at leiigth he took oath to observe 
t.icm, it was by no means in good faith. He repented of his tempo- 



ENGLAND. 149 

rary siibjection, and endeavoured to influence the other bishops to 
follow his steps. Henry, however, made him feel the royal power, 
by the confiscation of his property on some pretence. This act, 
Becket resented, by excommunicating the king's chief ministers, and 
abrogating the constitutions of Clarendon. On some further instance 
of his arrogance, the king was so vehemently agitated, that he ex- 
claimed, almost in reproaches, against his servants, whose " want of 
zeal," he said, "left him exposed to the machinations of that un- 
grateful and imperious prelate." Four knights of his household, 
taking these passionate expressions to be a hint for the primate's 
death, instantly agreed among themselves, to avenge their prince's 
quarrel ; and pursuing Becket, found him, slenderly attended, in the 
cathedral of St. Benedict, and there, before the altar, clove his head 
with many blows. 

Nothing could exceed the consternation of the king upon this 
event, and with a view to avert the resentment of the pope, he sub- 
mitted to the most humiliating treatment, even to the scourging of 
his naked body, by the monks. 

Endless were the panegyrics on the virtues of Becket ; and the 
miracles wrought by his relics, were more numerous, more ridicu- 
lous, and more impudently attested, than those which ever filled the 
legend of any confessor or martyr. He was canonized ; a jubilee 
was established for celebrating his merits ; and innumerable pilgrim- 
ages were made to his tomb. In one year, 100,000 pilgrims are said 
to have resorted thither. 

An important event in the reign of Henry, was the con- 
quest of Ireland. He seized the opportunity of making war 
on the island, when one of its petty chiefs, expelled by hia 
sovereign, sought liis protection. Henry's arms were success- 
ful, and the island was formally annexed to the English crown, 
in 1172. From that time, however, for some centuries, there 
was little intercourse between the kingdoms ; nor was the 
island ever considered as fully subdued, till the reign of Eli- 
zabeth, and of her successor, James I. 

§ The Irish were an early civilized people, and among the first of 
the nations of the West, who embraced the Christian religion. But 
by the frequent invasions of the Danes, and their own domestic com- 
motions, they were replunged into barbarism, for many ages. In the 
twelfth century, the kingdom was divided into five separate sove- 
reignties, but these were subdivided among a vast number of petty 
chiefs. 

Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sheriffs in each, 
and introduced the laws of England into a part of it ; the rest of 
the kingdom being regulated by their ancient laws, till the reign of 
Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English laws were 
extended to the whole kingdom. 

Henry, much as he accomplished for the welfare of his 
13* 



150 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

realm, was seldom exempt from calamity for a long time to- 
gether. His last years were particularly unhappy. The 
fault, however, was in a great measure his own. His illicit 
passion for Rosamond, whose extraordinary beauty made 
her the theme of many a ballad and romance, excited the 
resentment of his queen Eleanora, through wdiose means, 
three of his sons rebelled against him. Europe beheld with 
astonishment these sons, scarcely beyond the age of boy- 
hood, engaged in a series of efforts to wrest the sceptre from 
so potent a prince as Henry. They were, how^ever, aided 
by the king of France. The contest began in Henry's French 
territories. He soon crushed his enemies there ; then return- 
ing to England, and obtaining a victory over the Scots, who 
had embraced the cause of the young princes, he immediate- 
ly restored tranquillity to the country. He was not suffered 
long to rest ; his unnatural sons, though leniently treated, re- 
volted again, joined by John, his fourth and favourite son. 
Henry, distracted with care, and overcome with the ingrati- 
tude of his children, died of a broken heart, in the fifty- 
eighth year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his reign. 

§ Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, died suddenly while en- 
gaged in tlieir rebellion. The force of parental affection, is remark- 
ably exemplified in Henry's death, and, to the honour of the king, 
deserves notice. When the son was seized with a fever, he was 
conscious of his approaching dissolution, and sent a message to his 
father, wath a humble confession of his faults, and entreated the 
favour of a visit. The king was not very distant, but apprehensive 
that his sickness was feigned, durst not trust himself in his hands. 
But when he received intelligence of his death, he was overcome 
With grief ; he fainted away, accused his own hard-heartedness, and 
lamented that he had deprived his son of the opportunity of pour- 
hig out his soul in the bosom of an affectionate and reconciled father. 

His son Richard associated his youngest brother, John, in the last 
insurrection. When the unhappy father heard this, already sinking 
in cares and sorrows, he broke out into expressions of the utmost 
despair ; cursed the day of his birth, and loaded his ungrateful chil- 
dren with maledictions which he never would recall. 

Henry H., was one of the ablest of the Enghsh kings. His 
reign w^as also highly beneficial to his subjects. He was en- 
dowed with a natural sensibility, which his long experience 
of the ingratitude of man never impaired. But his hcentious- 
ness was too apparent, and his enmities too durable. His 
person w^as of a middle stature, strong and w^ell proportioned, 
his countenance engaging, and his elocution easv. 



ENGLAND. 151 

26. Richard I., the Lion-hearted, succeeded his father in 
1189. He possessed a most heroic nature, and rivalled the 
heroes of Greece, in warlike enterprises. His disposition was 
open and generous, but at the same time, ambitious, haughty, 
and cruel. He spent most of his reign in the mad project of 
the crusades, which have already been described, and particu- 
larly the part which was acted by this chivalric king. After 
an absence of nine )^ears, he reached England, but died within 
a few months, having first pardoned his traitorous brother 
John, and attempted to avenge the wrongs he had received 
from Philip of France. His foreign and distant wars exhaust- 
ed the resources of his country. 

27. John, surnamed Lackland, succeeded his brother upon 
the decease of the latter. His reign commenced in 1199, and 
continued to 1216 A. C. It was marked with the most dis- 
gusting tyranny and crime. 

§ He received his surname from the loss of his territories in France, 
of which he was stripped by the French king. The latter supported 
the pretensions of Arthur, John's nephew, whom John finally mur- 
dered. 

Early in his reign, he made the pope his enemy, by ap- 
propriating to his own purposes, some of the treasures of the 
church, and he met with the full extent of the papal ven- 
geance. At first obstinate, he was finally intimidated into 
submission. His kingdom was put under an interdict, him- 
self excommunicated, and after several personal concessions, 
he engaged to hold his kingdom tributary to the Holy See. 
By this conduct he incurred the deep hatred and contempt 
of his people. 

§ So greatly did the court of Rome triumph over him, that John did 
homage to Pandulf, the pope's legate, in the most abject manner, 
and paid part of the tribute which he owed for his kingdom, while 
the legate, in the haughtiness of sacerdotal power, trampled on the 
money, as an earnest of the subjection of the kingdom. 

The subjects of John, treated with such indignity, and even 
sold, felt it necessary to vindicate their rights. The barons, 
under the command of Langton, the primate, assembled, and 
binding themselves by an oath, to a concert of measures, de- 
manded from the king a ratification of a charter of privileges, 
granted by Henry I. The king was highly exasperated, and 
refused the demand, till resort was had to the sword. Desert- 
ed by his people, he was obliged most reluctantly to yield a 



152 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

compliance. At Runnymede, where he met his barons, he 
signed, on the 19th of June, 1215, that famous deed called 
Magna Charta, (the Great Charter,) which has had so pro- 
pitious an effect on the liberty of Englishmen. It secured 
important rights to all classes of his subjects, though some of 
its stipulations, from the change of manners and institutions, 
appear at this day trivial or ridiculous. 

§ The charter consisted of fourteen specifications, of which, two or 
three, the most important, were— that no aids or subsidies should be 
allowed to be levied from the subjects, unless in a few special cases, 
without the consent of the great council— that no person shall be 
tried on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful witnesses— 
and that no person shall be tried or punished, but by the judgment of 
his peers and the law of the land. 

John granted at the same time, the Charter of the Forest, which 
abolished the royal privilege of killing game over all the kingdom, 
and restored to the lawful proprietors their woods, which they 
were allowed to enclose for their own private purposes. 

The king, forced into these measures against his will, medi- 
tated a dreadful revenge against his barons, by the aid of fo- 
reign mercenaries, and began to lay his own realm waste 
with fire and sword. But, at a critical time, when Louis, the 
eldest son of Philip of France, had arrived in England, to 
assist the barons, with the expectation of receiving the crown 
himself, John suddenly died. Louis was obliged to return to 
France, and the succession was settled on Henry, the son of 
John, a boy of nine years of age. 

§ In the person of John, the English were scourged with a tyrant, 
more odious and capricious than any other of their sovereigns, be- 
fore or since. To tyranny, he added cowardice, levity, licentious- 
ness, ingratitude, and treachery. His vices were, however, made, 
providentially, the occasion of great blessings to his subjects, in the 
enjoyment of a portion of liberty, which they wrested from his 
weakness. 

28. Henry UL began his reign in 1216, the earl of Pem- 
broke being appointed protector during the king's minority. 
His disposition, which was easy and fickle, led him and his 
subjects into numerous difficulties and disasters. The weak- 
ness of his understanding scarcely preserved him from con- 
tempt, and joining profusion with oppressive exactions, and 
lavishing his favours on foreigners, he displeased both the no- 
bility and the populace. His reign was as unhappy as it was 
protracted, being marked with many bloody contentions. 



ENGLAND. 153 

§ Henry, though in general a mild and merciful prince, yet violated 
the great charter in confiscating the estates of some of the obnoxious 
nobles, without a trial by their peers. When remonstrated with on 
the subject, he replied, " Why should I observe this charter, which 
is neglected by all my grandees, both prelates and nobility ?" to 
which it was justly returned, '• You ought, sir, to set them the ex- 
ample." 

Henry's imprudent measures encouraged Simon de Mont- 
fort, earl of Leicester, to attempt to wrest the sceptre from 
the feeble hand which held it. He succeeded in part ; and 
as the consequence of a battle, he took both the king and his 
son Edward, prisoners. But through the interference of the 
parliament, which Leicester summoned, he deemed it prudent 
to release the prince, who was no sooner set at liberty, than he 
took the field against the usurper, and gained over him the 
famous battle of Evesham. In this battle Leicester was kill- 
ed, and the gallant Edward enjoyed the happiness of repla- 
cing his father on the throne. 

§ Leicester had assumed the character of regent, after having com- 
pelled the king to resign the regal power. In the parliament which 
was called, he summoned two knights from each shire, and deputies 
from the principal boroughs. From this era, is dated the commence- 
ment of the House of Commons. Deputies representing the boroughs, 
had not before constituted a portion of the national council. 

In the battle which took place between Prince Edward and Lei- 
cester, the rebels, who still retained the old king, had purposely pla- 
ced him in the front of the battle. Being clad in.armour, and there- 
by not known by his friends, he received a wound, and was in dan- 
ger of his life ; but crying out " I am Henry of Winchester, your 
king," he was rescued from impending death. 

Edward, afterw^ards, sought and revived the glory of the 
English name, in the land of Palestine ; but tlie kingdom 
suffered most severely in the mean time, under the imbecile 
reign of the aged monarch ; the barons oppressing the com- 
mon people, and the populace of London returning to their 
accustomed licentiousness. The death of Henry, after a 
reign of more than 55 years, left the kingdom in more vigor- 
ous hands. 

29. Edward I., (Longshanks) was crowned in 1272. His 
first object was to correct the disorders which the civil com- 
motions had introduced. In this work, he let loose the whole 
rigour of his justice on the Jews, who had been accused of 
adulterating the public coin. Multitudes of them lost their 
lives, or their property and homes. 



154 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

Edward's next project was the conquest of Wales. He in- 
vaded the country with a force too great to be resisted ; and 
after kilUng Llewellyn, the Welsh prince, and the flower of 
his warriors, he received the submission of the Welsh nobili- 
ty, 1283. From this period Wales has been united to Eng- 
land, and the English laws established throughout the princi- 
pality. 

§ It is said that Edward, in order to conciliate the Welsh, gave 
them for a prince, his own son, who was born in their country. The 
title of Prince of Wales, has ever since descended to the eldest sons 
of the English' kings. 

The Welsh, inhabiting the western part of the island of Great 
Britain, were the descendants of that portion of the ancient Britons, 
who had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, and preserved 
tlieir liberty, laws, manners, and language. The occasion of Ed- 
ward's attack upon this people, was their prince's refusal to perform 
the customary homage to the English crown. 

The next project of Edward, was the conquest of Scotland. 
Great success attended his arms at different times, but he was 
never able to effect a total and final conquest of that part of 
the island. As the history of England and Scotland is so in- 
timately connected, a brief account of the latter, to the time 
at which we are now arrived, will be in place below, and 
will supersede the necessity of a separate narrative. 

§ The northern part of the island was anciently called Caledonia, 
from a word which is said to have signified a forest, or mountainous 
country. Subsequently, and at an early period, it received the name 
of Scotia, or Scotland ; and then it derived it from the Scots, who 
originally lived in the north of Ireland. The name Scot, is probably 
the same as Scuth, or Scythian — the people being emigrants from 
the Baltic countries. 

The history of Scotland, before the reign of Malcom III., is ob- 
scure, and in a degree uncertain. This prince, by the defeat of Mac- 
beth, the murderer of his father Duncan, succeeded to the throne in 
1057. A war which took place between him and William the Con- 
queror, was equally disastrous to both kingdoms. He prolonged the 
contest with Rufus, the son of William, with credit to his bravery ; 
while to the virtues of his queen, Margaret, his kingdom, in its do- 
mestic policy, owed a degree of civihzation scarcely known in those 
untutored ages. 

Under his successors, Alexander I., a spirited prince, and David 
I., a most excellent sovereign, Scotland successfully defended itself 
against the English, and, under the latter king, .onquered the whole 
earldom of Northumberland ; but the defeat of William I., (the Li- 
on) was disastrous to the kingdom, since he was taken prisoner by 
Henry II., and, as the price of his release, was compelled to do ho- 



ENGLAND. 155 

mage for his whole kingdom. This obligation, however, Richard L 
generously discharged. 

Alexander III., dying without male issue, in 1285, Bruce and Bali- 
ol, descendants of David L, by the female line, were competitors for 
the crown. Edward was chosen umpire of the contest, and on this 
ground, arrogated to himself the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom. 
He took possession of the country, and adjudged the crown to Bali- 
ol, on the condition of his doing homage to him, as liege lord. Ba- 
liol, however, soon renounced his allegiance, but was compelled at 
length by the English monarch, to abdicate the throne ; the latter 
having defeated him with great slaughter, in the battle of Dunbar. 

The war commenced by Edward against the Scots, did 
not terminate during his life time. It continued 70 years, 
and involved both countries in all the miseries of bloodshed. 
Edward twice defeated the Scots and took possession of their 
country, and twice they re-asserted their liberties ; once under 
the heroic but unfortunate William Wallace, and once under 
the gallant and more fortunate Robert Bruce, the Scottish 
king. As Edward was preparing to invade Scotland the 
third time, with an immense army, he suddenly sickened and 
died, at Carhsle, in the 35th year of his reign, and the 69th 
of his age. He was removed for interment to Westminster 
Abbey.* 

§ The conduct of Wallace was a remarkable instance of heroism. 
A few patriots, only, joined him at first, but his successes finally 
brought large numbers to his standard. While Edward was absent, 
and engaged in war on the continent, Wallace attacked his troops in 
a desperate engagement at Stirling, and obtained a complete victory. 

The disaffection of the Scotch nobles, who envied Wallace his dis- 
tinction as governor of the country, under Baliol, again exposed them 
to the attack of the English. Edward, in person, defeated them 
with an immense loss, in the battle of Falkirk. After a fruitless re- 
sistance, the Scots submitted to Edward ; and the heroic Wallace, 
eventually betrayed, and carried in chains to London, was condemn- 
ed as a rebel, and infamously executed on Tower-hill, to the lasting 
dishonour of the English king. 

Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who was the competitor of 
Baliol, redeemed the honour of his country. Resenting its humili- 
ation, he set up the standard of war. The genius of the nation then 
roused itself. Bruce was solemnly crowned at Scone, 1306, and fu- 
riously attacking the English, who were dispersed in their quarters, 
he again expelled them the kingdom. It was immediately after, 
that Edward died, on his way to Scotland. 

* The tomb of this king was opened in 1774, when his body was found ua- 
consumotV 



156 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

Edward was an able prince, and excelled both as a \varrior 
and statesman. The wisdom of his political measures is es- 
pecially conspicuous. Tn moral qualities, however, he was 
far from being an example fit for imitation. Ambition, a 
spirit of revenge, and an unfeeling heart, too plainly charac- 
terized him. 

Under his reign, the Constitution of England gradually 
advanced. He passed a statute which declared that no tax 
or impost should be levied without the consent of lords and 
commons. He ratified magna-charta on several occasions ; 
and henceforward this fundamental law began to be regard- 
ed as sacred and inviolable, while parliaments have been held 
in regular succession. 

GERMANY. 

30. Germany, during this period, enjoyed but little tran- 
quillity. The contest between the Empire and the Papa* 
See, continued under a succession of emperors and popes^, 
but ended commonly in favour of the latter. The treat 
ment which some of the emperors received from the popes, 
was extremely humiliating. Frederick I., (Barbarossa) a 
prince of high spirit, after indignantly denying the suprema- 
cy of Alexander HI., and refusing the customary homage, 
was finally compelled to kiss the feet of his Holiness, and ap- 
pease him by a large cession of territory. Henry VI., while 
doing homage on his knees, had his imperial crow^n kicked 
off by pope Celestinus, who, however, made some amends 
for this indignity, by the gift of Naples and Sicily. Henry 
had expelled the Normans from these places, and they now 
became appendages of the empire, 1194. 

The claims of the popes upon the empire, rose to such a 
height, that in the begining of the thirteenth century, In- 
nocent III., established the powders of the popedom on a settled 
basis, and obtained a positive acknowledgment of the papal 
supremacy, or the right irreversibly to confer the crown of 
the empire. 

It was a consequence of the contentions between the im- 
perial and papal powers, to divide the states of Italy, several 
of which belonged to the empire, into two violent factions, 
by which Italy was so long devastated. These were known 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 157 

by the name of the Giielphs,* and Ghibellines, the former 
maintaining the cause of the popes, the latter that of the 
emperors. Frederic II., carried on an opposition to four suc- 
cessive popes ; but though he was excommunicated and de- 
posed, he kept possession of his throne, and exercised his 
autliority with a commendable tirmness. On his death, 1250, 
the empire began to wane, and confusion and anarchy pre- 
vailed till the election of Rodolph of Hapsburgh, in 1273. 

§ During the latter part of the period above referred to, there was 
a nominal sovereign, viz., Alphonso X., king of Castile, who was 
elected emperor, but who, detained at home, neglected the affairs of 
Germany. 

No laws were then observed ; no order was maintained ; but 
murder, theft, and rapine, were committed with impunity, and the 
constitutions of the empire were totally neglected. Sanguinary 
wars resulted from the feuds of private noblemen; bishops and 
clergymen, forgetful of their sacred character, embrued their han<is 
in blood, for the augmentation of their benefices ; commerce was 
almost annihilated ; and travelling could not be performed with any 
safety. 

In the history of Germany, during the present period, few other 
occurrences are worthy of notice. The following anecdote may be 
worth recording. One of the favourites of Henry VI., observed to 
him that he fatigued himself too much with giving audience, which 
frequently interfered with his regular meals. Henry replied, " that 
although a private man was at liberty to eat when he pleased, a 
prince ought not to sit down to table, till he had discussed the affiiirs 
of his people." 

The reign of Lotharius was rendered remarkable, by some ex- 
cessive heats in Germany, which withered the corn and fruits of 
the earth, dried up the most considerable rivers, and occasioned a 
dreadful mortality among the cattle. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. 

31. The affairs of the Eastern Empire were, in part, nar- 
rated in the history of the crusades. Little, therefore, needs 
be added to this record, in respect to the present period. The 
outward splendour of the empire was yet considerable, but the 
progress of decay was obvious. The Greeks manifested 
their cunning, and sometimes their treachery, in their treat- 
ment of the crusaders. The emperors, though on many ac^ 

* The family now on the throne of Great Britain bear the surnaine of 
Guelph, and are descended from the Guelphs here spoken of. 

14 



158 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

counts they wished success to the crusaders, yet dreaded their 
power, and between these two passions, the soldiers of tlie 
cross became the dupes and the victims of their poUcy. The 
weakness of the empire was seen, when Constantinople, its 
capital, was taken by a handful of French and Venetian 
crusaders, and held iii subjection nearly sixty years. 

Within the limits of the present period, about nine empe- 
rors sat on the throne of the East, besides the five French or 
Latin emperors who reigned at Constantinople. During the 
reign of the latter, four Greek emperors reigned at Nice, over 
the remainder of the empire. 

It was under Michael Paleeologus, 1261, that Constantino- 
ple was recovered by the Greeks from its Latin conquerors. 
"When the former and ancient sovereigns of the city deter- 
mined to retake the seat of the empire, Palteologus was found 
possessed of the requisite ambition. Favoured by circumstan- 
ces, and skilful in the application of means, he accomplished 
the object ; and the second seat of the venerable Roman do- 
minion was destined yet longer, to be held by the successors 
of the great Constantine. 

§ The designs of Palaeologus were promoted by the Genoese, tlie 
rivals of the Venetians. The Latins had been gradually driven 
from their last possessions in Thrace ; and at a time when the bra- 
vest of the French and Venetians were absent from the city, a 
general of Paloeologus advanced in the night to its gates. He suc- 
ceeded in entering it, partly by a subterranean passage into the 
centre of the city. Baldwin, the Latin emperor, in dismay, escap- 
ing to the sea-shore, was conveyed to Italy, and spent the remainder 
of his life in vainly attempting to rouse the Catholic powers to 
join in his restoration. 

No names besides Paloeologus are much distinguished, except 
those of Alexis Comnenus, and his son John Alexis. The one was 
an able and politic sovereign, as his management of the crusaders 
abundantly evinced. The other, with talent, united moral worth, 
and seemed by his virtues to revive the age of Marcus Antoninus. 

The lamentable end of a cruel usurper named Andronicus, is worth 
recording, as it shews how much the wicked, in death, sometimes 
feel that they need the divine mercy. The butcheries of Androni- 
cus had wearied the patience of the citizens of Constantinople. 
They rose en-masse against him, headed by Isaac Angelus. In their 
rage the populace tore from him successively his teeth, his hair, an 
eye, and a hand ; and being suspended for three days, every person 
who could reach the public enemy, inflicted on him some mark of 
ingenious or brutal cruelty, till at length two Italians, out of mercy 
or rage, plunging their swords into his body, released him from all 



SARACENS. 159 

human punishment. During this long and excruciating torture, 
" Lord have mercy on me," and " Why wilt thou break a bruised 
reed !" were the only words that escaped his mouth. Our pity for 
tlie man, seems almost to absorb our hatred of the tyrant. 

SARACENS. 

32. The empire of the Saracens, before the conclusion of 
this period, was destined to be no more. Their history is 
partly involved in the details of the crusades. The ener- 
gies of fanatic Europe, were exerted against the followers of 
the prophet, with some intervals, nearly two centuries, and 
terrible was the destruction of life on both sides. The king- 
dom of Jerusalem, under christian sovereigns, which origi- 
nated from the crusades, lasted not quite a century and a 
half. The Saracens, on recovering this domain, held it, how- 
ever, but a short time. In a few years after, the Tartars from 
the east swept over the regions which the Saracens had con- 
quered, and blotted out their name from the Hst of empires. 

This event occurred 1258 years A. C. From the close of 
our last period to the termination of their dominion, ten ca- 
liphs of the house of Abbas, reigned at Bagdad. The last 
of the caliphs was Mostasem, who was put to death at the 
time the city was captured. The Tartars were led by Ha- 
laku, their general, who after a few assaults, took Bagdad, 
which contained immense riches, and gave it up seven days 
to be pillaged by his troops. 

A few particulars may be noticed concerning some of the 
caliphs. 

§ Of one, named Mohammed, it is said, that he quitted life with such 
extreme regret, that when about dying, he ordered his troops, his 
court, and all his treasures, to pass before him, as it were in a view ; 
and after he had considered all these objects, observed, "how is it 
possible that a power so formidable as mine, is not able to diminish 
the weight of my disorder one single grain, nor to prolong my life 
only for a moment." He then concluded his reflection with the fol- 
lowing remarkable words. " Unhappy is the person who spends 
his time in amassing those things which he must leave, and does 
not make the principal object of regard, that Being in whom all 
things are to be found." 

The reign of Al Moktafi must have been remarkable for justice. 
This the following anecdote may prove. A man convicted of ca- 
lumny, was sent by him to prison. One of his nobles offered to give 
him two thousand pieces of gold coin for his release, to which the 



1^50 i\3odi:r-s' history. — period vi. 

caliph replied, '" put another man, guilty of the same crime, in my 
power, and I will give yon ten thousand ; for I am extremely anxious 
to clear mv dominions of these pests of society." 

The later caliphs, in the decline of the Saracen empire, were not. 
the warlike sovereigns that their predecessors had been. They 
thought only of securing their ease and pleasure. Mostasem, above 
spoken of, exceeded all the caliphs in ostentation and pride. When 
he appeared in public, he usually wore a veil, the more effectually 
to attract the respect of the people, whom he considered as un- 
Avorthy to look at him. On those occasions, nothing could exceed 
the eagerness of the multitude to see him, by crowding the streets, 
and hiring the windows and balconies, at the most exorbitant prices. 
The manner of his death was degrading and distressing in the ex- 
treme, and Hulaki designed it as a punishment of his pride. 
Through the same streets, and exposed to the view of the same po- 
pulace, the cruel Tartar caused the wrt tclied caliph to be dragged, 
confined in a leather bag, till he expired. 

CHINA. 

33. In the history of China, the present period includes a 
part both of the nineteenth and twentieth of the dynasties of 
her emperors. The whole of the nineteenth, comprised se- 
venteen emperors. It was dining this period that the cele- 
brated Genghis Khan, and his successors, established their 
dominion in China. Heading the Mogul Tartais, who inha- 
bited a desert and inhospital^le region, Genghis Khan, in 
1209, entered China, poured over the northern provinces, and 
compelled them to submit to his authority. Kublay, his son, 
called by the Chinese, Houpilay, entered on his father's con- 
(juests in this country, and reigned for a time over the 
northern provinces. 

Li-tsong, and his tbree sons and a nephew, in succession, 
were the last sovereigns of the nineteenth dynasty, and reigned 
over the southern- part of the empire. It is said that Kublay 
(more probably a descendant of his) brought the whole of the 
country into subjection in 1280, and that with the nineteenth 
dynasty, ended, in fact, the Chinese dominion until the year 
1357. 

Kublay had the wisdom and prudence to govern the 
Chinese according to their ancient laws and customs. This 
procedure, together with the general excellence of his charac- 
ter, entirely reconciled the people to the Tartar sway, so far 
as they were brought under it. 

§ The Mogul Tartars, who conquered Chma, were a wandering 
8 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 161 

race, and given to arms. The extent and rapidity of their con- 
quests have rarely been equalled in history. In the beginning of the 
thirteenth century, Genghis Khan overran, besides China, already 
mentioned, India, Persia, and Asiatic Russia. Batoucan, one of hi's 
sons, ravaged the western nations to the frontiers of Germany. But 
Genghis and his sons were not the only conquerors who arose from 
among this people. From the vast tract of country inhabited by the 
Tartars, have sprung the conquerors who produced all the great re- 
volutions in Asia. Besides the personages just named, the Turks, 
who are a race of Tartars, overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs. 
Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered Persia, and a great part of India, in 
the tenth century. After Genghis, as we shall hereafter see, Tamer- 
lane, the scourge of the Turks, subdued a great part of Asia, and 
Baber, a remote descendant of Tamerlane, conquered all the region 
between Samarcand and Agra, in the empire of the Mogul. The 
descendants of those conquerors now reign in India, Persia, and 
China. 

Distinguished characters in Period VI. 

1. Abelard, a scholastic divine. 

2. Walter de Mapes, a poet, the Anacreon of the twelfth 
century. 

3. Averroes, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 

4. Genghis Khan, a Mogul, conqueror of Asia. 

5. Matthew Paris, an early English historian. 

6. Th. Aquinas, a celebrated teacher of School Divinity. 

7. Roger Bacon, an eminent English philosopher. 

§ I. Abelard, was born in Brittany, 1079, and became celebrated for 
his learning and misfortunes. He was one of the most eminent di- 
vines of the twelfth century, though his conduct ill agreed with his 
sacred profession. He was criminally vain of his personal and 
mental accomplishments, but his most notorious failings relate to 
his conduct towards Heloise. With the most consummate art, he 
gained the favours of that beautiful and accomplished female, to 
their mutual dishonour. They were soon afterwards married in 
private, to pacify her uncle and family, though she never would 
acknowledge the union, inasmuch as she preferred the name of a 
mistress, to that of a wife. Their subsequent conduct eventually ex- 
cited the indignation of her friends to such a degree, that they 
hired certain rutfians to maim his person in the most shameful 
manner. 

In the oratory of the Paraclete which Abelard built, the unfor- 
tunate Heloise finally found a refuge, where she spent her days 
with her sister nuns. She retained her affection for Abelard, though 
he returned it with a coldness and indifference, which cannot but 
excite our indignation. Whilst he languished during the decline of 
life, under the unmanly vengeance of the uncle of Heloise, he forgot 
that she, once virtuous, had sacrificed her name, honour, and hap- 

14* 



162 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

piness, to his passion. The poem of Pope, in which he celebrates 
the loves of Abelard and Heloise, is a brilliant, but corrupting pro- 
duction, and not even the bard can soften the features of deformity, 
which mark the character of Abelard in this particular. 

Tlie writings of Abelard, are mostly on subjects of theology or 
logic. 

2. Walter de Mapes, was chaplain to Henry II. Under king John 
he was made canon of Salisbury, precentor of Lincoln, and arch- 
deacon of Oxford. He wrote in Latin, and in a satirical style. 
Some of his verses are still read and admired for their sprightliness. 
He imitated the gay humour of Anacreon. He was a facetious 
companion. 

3. Averroes was born at Corduba, where his father was judge un- 
der the emperor of Morocco. His knowledge of laAV, divinity, math- 
ematics, and astrology, was very extensive, and to this was added 
the theory, rather than the practice, of medicine. After being pro- 
fessor in the university of Morocco, he was called away to succeed 
his father in the otfice of Judge in Corduba, and soon after, he was 
invested with the same powers in Morocco and Mauritania. 

His authority and talents procured him enemies, who envied and 
calumniated him, and througli their efforts he was, for a time, sus- 
pended and degraded, on a charge of heresy. He was, however,, 
restored at length to all his honours. He died at Morocco, 1206. 

In his private life, Averroes Mas regular, and devoted much of his 
time to philosophical pursuits. He was particularly fond of Aristo- 
tle, on whose works he wrote commentaries. His medical works 
are scarce, and above mediocrity ; and of his numerous verses on 
amorous and light subjects, very few remain. 

4. Genghis Khan, was son of a khan of the Moguls, and born 
1163. He began to reign at the age of 13, but on account of a re- 
volt of his subjects, he fled for safety to Aventi-Khan, a Tartar 
prince, whom he supported on his throne, and whose daughter he 
married. But the jealousy of Aventi obliged him to escape a se- 
cond time, and being pursued by Aventi and his son, he defeated 
them both, and their army revolting to him, he soon increased it. 

From this occurrence, he became a renowned conqueror. In the 
space of 28 years he subdued the greater part of Asia, and render- 
ed himself as famous for his skill in government, as for the valour 
of his arms. He died in 1227, leaving his vast dominions, which 
extended 1800 leagues in length, and 1000 in breadth, properly divi- 
ded among his four sons. 

5. Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, was a imiversal scholar, 
and in that dark age, confessedly possessed great and astonishing 
erudition. He is chiefly celebrated as a historian, though not un- 
known as an orator and poet. His abilities and well known integri- 
ty, fitted him for the work in which he so zealously engaged, of re- 
forming the monasteries, and re-establishing the ancient purity of 
church discipline, even in opposition to the papal power. His great 
production was "Historia Major," in two parts, from the creation to 
Wilham the Conqueror, and from the Conqueror to the year 1250. 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 163 

With Henry III. he was famiharly acquainted ; yet his account of 
the reign of that prince, seems not to be at all tinged with flattery, 
or sullied with any violation of historic truth. 

6. Th, Aquinas, called the angelical doctor, was of a noble family, 
descended from the kings of Arragon and Sicily. His inclination to 
embrace an ecclesiastical life, was strongly opposed by his mother. 
She even confined him two years in her castle. But escaping from 
her custody, he found the means of improving himself by study, and 
it was not long before he appeared at Paris, reading public lectures 
to an applauding audience. On his return to Italy, he became di- 
vinity professor to several universities, and at last settled at Naples, 
where he led a chaste and devout life. 

Gregory X. invited him to the Council of Lyons, to read the book 
which he had written against the Greeks, but he died on the way to 
join the pontiff, near Terracina, 7th March, 1274, in his 50th year. 
Aquinas left a vast number of works, mostly upon theological sub- 
jects, which prove him to have been a man of extensive erudition. 
There is, however, in his writings, very little of sound, useful, or ex- 
perimental views of religious truth. 

7. Roger Bacon was born in 1214, near Echester, of a respectable 
family, and became a monk of the Franciscan order. A strong, in- 
quisitive mind, soon raised him to consequence ; and as he was libe- 
rally supported in his pursuits by his friends, he made a most rapid 
advancement in science and philosophy. His attainments becoming 
far above the comprehensions of his age, he was suspected and accu- 
sed of magic. The monks of his order, actuated by jealousy and 
envy, contrived to have his works rejected from their library, and to 
prevent him from reading lectures to the students. He was finally 
imprisoned, and during 10 years was left to pursue his studies in so- 
litary confinement. Within this period, he composed his "Opus 
Majus," or his Great Work. After being released from prison by 
the interference of his friends, he spent the remainder of his life in 
academical repose, at Oxford. He died at the age of 80 years. 

To the comprehensive mind of Roger Bacon, many of the disco- 
veries, which have been made by the genius and toil of later ages, 
were known. His knowledge of mathematics and natural philoso- 
phy, was profound. He discovered the error in the calendar, and 
his plan for correcting it was adopted by Gregory XIII. He was 
acquainted with the structure of an air pump, with the laws of op- 
tics, and with the power of glasses. His acquaintance with chemis- 
try was extensive. He gave such a description of gunpowder, that 
it is evident he was its inventor. In his writings, which amounted 
to above eighty treatises, some of which are published, and some 
preserved in manuscript, in the libraries of Europe, he uses an ele- 
gant and nervous style, and was always accurate in his observations 
on nature. 



164 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

PERIOD VII. 

The period of the Papal Schism ; extending from the 
founding of the Turkish Empire^ 1299 years A, C, to 
the taking of Constantinople^ 1453 years A. C, 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

Sect. 1. The Empire of the Turks, claims the notice of 
histor}^, from the important consequences connected with its 
eventual establishment, on the ruin of the Grecian sovereign- 
ty. The power of this people is felt on the soil of classical 
antiquity, and until lately, it extended itself over nearly the 
whole of it, in the south east of E arope. Their establishment 
as a separate empire, is an event which took place in 1299 
A. C, under Ottoman or Othman, the first Sultan. 

§ The Turks derive their origin from the Avares, a tribe of the 
Huns who dwelt in Great Tartary, till forced by the Huns of the 
south, to abandon their country, when they divided into several bo- 
dies, each of which taking a different direction, settled, some around 
the Caspian Sea, some in Pannonia, and others in Asia Minor. 

The last colony, known under the name of the Seljukide Turks, 
founded an empire in Asia Minor, about the year 1070, and their 
chief took the title of Sultan of Iconium, a town of Lycaonia, where 
he fixed his residence. In 1294, this empire was destroyed by the 
Moguls, and the emirs or governors of most of the provinces became 
independent. The Turks embraced Mahometanism long before the 
time of Othman, as we gather from the history of the Crusades. 

Othman was an emir under the last sultan of Iconium. 
Forming the scheme of raising a new empire from that which 
was just overthrown, he engaged the assistance of several other 
emirs, and seized Iconium. He soon fixed the seat of his 
government at Byrsa, the chief town of Bythinia, and as- 
sumed the title of Sultan. From this time the Turks were 
known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty. 

By degrees, they encroached on the borders of the Greek 
empire, and were prevented from subverting it at an early 
stage, only by the necessity of defending themselves against 
the victorious Tamerlane. Their principal sovereigns, during 
this period, after Othman, were Orchan, Amurat I.,Bajazet I., 
Mahomet I., and Amurat 11. 

§ In the reign of Orchan, the Turks crossed the Hellespont on 
rafts, took Gallipoli, the key of Europe, penetrated into Thrace^ and 



ITALIAN STATES. 165 

laid the foundation of the Turkish power in Europe, Orchan cre- 
ated the order of Janizaries, thougli as they were more completely or- 
ganized by his successor, Amurat, this institution is generally attri- 
buted to the latter. 

Bajazet I., the successor of Amnrat, purposed to besiege the ^capi- 
tal of the Greek empire in form, but he was suddenly forced to de- 
fend himself against Tamerlane. Tamerlane, or Timer-bek, was a 
prince of the Usbcc Tartars, and a descendant from Gengiskan. 
Having conquered Persia and most of the East, he was invited by the 
enemies of Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power. He 
gladly accepted the invitation, and having met the Turk, he totally 
defeated him, and made him prisoner. The battle of Angoria, where 
the chieftains fought, is a famous one in history. ' Nearly 1,000,000 
of men were engaged in this battle, and 300,000 were slain. The 
victorious career of the Turks was suspended by this event. Baja- 
zet was shut up in an iron cage, in which he destroyed himself. 

Under Amurat H., the Turks resumed the project of taking Con- 
stantinople, but did not succeed. This prince had devoted himself 
to retirement and study, but some violation of a treaty, led him into 
a war with the Poles, in M'hich he was signally victorious. He left 
his dominions to his son Mahomet H., surnamed the Great, known 
in history as the final subverter of the Eastern empire. 

ITALIAN STATES. 

2. Italy, in the separate States of wbicli it consisted 
during this period, and subsequently, appears again on the 
page of history. The principal states were Venice, Florence, 
Naples, Sicily, the possessions of the Church, Genoa, Par- 
ma, and a few others. Most of these sovereignties had been 
previously founded, but they existed in their most flourishing 
condition, during the present period. 

3. Venice had become considerable in the ninth century. 
Afterward, in the year 1084, the eastern emperor, Alexius, 
confirmed to tlie Venetians, Istria, Dalmatia, and Croatia, 
which had been conquered by their arms. They subdued 
also Verano, Padua, and other Italian States, in 1405. On 
the death of the king of Epirus, they acquired that Island 
in addition. The Venetians, for a long time, were the prin- 
cipal merchants of the world, but their trade was greatly 
diminished by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, in 
1497. During the latter part of this period, in consequence 
of their wars with the Turks, they lost many of their pos- 
sessions. 

§ The following incident in the Venetian history, deserves a par- 
ticular notice. Ziani, the thirty-ninth doge, or chief magistrate of 



165 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

the republic, was involved in a war with Frederic Barbarossa, from 
whose persecution the Pope had retired to Venice. The Venetians 
dispatched embassadors to the emperor, who answered them in a 
rage, that if their doge did not instantly deliver up the Pope, bound 
hand and foot, he would be terribly revenged,— would bring his army 
before their city, and fix his victorious standard in their market 
place, which should float in the blood of its citizens. 

The embassadors returned with this awful message, and it was 
agreed to equip a fleet with all expedition, and prepare for repelling 
the emperor's meditated vengeance. While the Venetians were thus 
employed, Otho, the Emperor's son, entered the gulf with seventy- 
five gallics, and was making sail to the city. The doge, with haste, 
met this fleet, with the few ships which were fit to put to sea, and in 
a dreadful battle took and destroyed forty-eight of the enemy's ves- 
sels, and returned in triumph to Venice. From this time was con- 
tinued the ceremony of marrying the sea. The Pope going out to 
meet the victorious doge, presented him with a ring, saying, " Take, 
Ziani, this ring, and give it to the sea, as a testimony of your do- 
minion. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony, 
that posterity may know your valour has purchased the prerogative, 
and subjected this element, even as a husband subjecteth his wife." 

4. Florence, which was the capital of Tuscany, early rose 
into notice. It became a repubhc in the thirteenth century, 
and maintained its independence during two or three centu- 
ries. It was distinguished, by the revival of Grecian litera- 
ture, and the cultivation of the arts, in the fifteenth century. 
Before the close of this period, the family of the Medicia 
arose, and shed a splendour on the republic of letters. 

5. Naples, just before the beginning of the present era, was 
entered by Charles, duke of Anjou, who became its king, as 
well as of Sicily. These countries were frequently united in 
one government, and as often separated from each other. 
They were the seat of long wars between the French and 
Germans on the one part, and the Spaniards on the other. 
But the latter at length obtained possession of the kingdoms. 

6. The Estates of the Church, which include the middle 
portions of Italy, were, during the present period, greatly in- 
volved in controversies. The rival claims for superiority be- 
tween the popes and emperors, still continued. Henry VII., 
the successor of Albert, triumphantly fought his way to Rome, 
where, in a solemn manner, he received the crown, and im- 
posed a tribute on the states of the Church. He was sud- 
denly destroyed, it was supposed, by papal vengeance. 

It was in his time, that the remarkable event took place, by 
which the seat of the popedom was changed from Rome to 



FRANCE. 167 

Avignon. This was clone by pope Clement V., 1309, on ac- 
count of being so much molested by the imperial faction. In 
the absence of this pope from Rome, Nicholas Rienzi, a man 
of mean parentage, but of great abilities, aspired to the su- 
preme authority, in 1347. He retained the dominion of this 
portion of Italy, for a year ; but was afterwards sacrificed to 
the finy of the people. In the year 1377, the holy see was 
removed back to Rome, by pope Gregory IX. After his 
death, the citizens of Avignon and Rome contended for the 
freedom of election. Three separate factions of the French 
and Italian cardinals, having elected three separate popes, tlie 
emperor Sigismund judged this division of the Church to be 
a fit occasion for his interference, to reconcile all differences, 
and establish his own supremacy. 

In 1414, he summoned a general council at Constance, 
and ended the dispute by deposing all the three pontiffs, and 
naming a fourth, Martin Colonna. Historians call this di- 
vision of the papacy, the great schism of the west. 

7. Genoa, the ancient Liguria, became a republic in 953. 
The Genoese were afterwards involved in civil commotions, 
which so weakened them, that they were obliged to shelter 
themselves under the protection of the duke of Milan. They 
continually revolted to the French, and returned again to 
subjection to the Milanese, till, in the next succeeding period, 
Andrew Doria restored Hberty to his native country. 

§ The Genoese, next to the Venetians, were, for 200 years, the most 
commercial people in Europe. The city of Genoa, was afterwards 
celebrated as the birth place of the great Columbus. 

FRANCE. 

Capetian Race. Branch of Valois. 

8. The successor of Philip the Fair, on the throne of 
France, was Louis X. surnamed Hutin, (the wrangler,) 
1314. He was a prince of a weak and irresolute character, 
and reigned but a few months. A son, born after his death, 
was acknowledged, but lived only four days. Upon this 
event, Phihp V. the Long, brother of Louis, succeeded to the 
throne. His was a short reign of five years. 

§ Philip V. was notorious for his persecution of the Jews, and, in 
general, of all foreigners who resided within his dominion, and re- 



168 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VTI. 

fused to embrace Christianity. The Jews were accused of having 
poisoned the wells and springs of water. 

9. Philip leaving no other than female issue, was succeed- 
ed, 1322, by liis brother, Charles IV., the Fair. His reign 
was unfortunately short, for he was a wise and upright 
prince. He left no son behind liirn. 

§ According to the Salic law, no female succeeds to the French 
throne. 

10. The throne now devolved on Philip VT. of Valois, 
cousin to the late king, 1328. Edward HI. of England, 
however, claimed it in right of his mother, Isabella, who 
was a daughter of Philip the Fair. He enforced his claim 
by arms ; but Philip being acknowledged and supported by 
the French nation, retained the sceptre, notwithstanding the 
loss of the famous battle of Cressy, and the capture of Ca- 
lais. In the celebrated wars which these rival pretensions 
created, the English were at first victorious. 

Philip was vain, obstinate, and of a limited capacity, and 
died after a reign of twenty-two years. 

§ In the midst of his losses, Philip was gratified with the cession of 
the province of Dauphine ; the condition of which was, that the 
eldest son, the presumptive heir of the crown, should be styled Dau- 
phin, and bear the arms of the province. 

It was in the reign of this prince, that a general plague, surpass- 
ing in its horrors whatever besides the remotest history can furnish, 
ravaged, in the space of eighteen months, not only France, but 
every part of the known world. It broke out in the northern pro- 
vinces of China, and swept over Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the 
places through which it passed, it cut down two thirds of the inhab- 
itants. This calamity had been preceded by terrific earthquakes, 
which swallowed up whole cities. 

John 11., surnamed the Good, succeeded his father, 1350. 
He was a most unfortunate prince. Taking the field with 
60,000 men, against the Black Prince, he was defeated by 
the latter with a far inferior number, in the signal battle of 
Poictiers, and made prisoner. 

§ He was carried in triumph to London, and, after having been de- 
tained in captivity four years, was permitted to return to France, 
upon ceding several important places to the English. He, however, 
visited London again, on account, as is supposed, of a passion which 
he had conceived for the countess of Salisbury. He died very soon 
afterwards. 

12. The Dauphin assumed the administration, during tlie 
captivity of the king; and, on the death of the latter, succeed- 
ed to the throne, under the name of Charles Y. the Wise. 



FRANCE. 169 

Had it not been for this prince, France would most probably 
have fallen under the domination of England. During his 
reign, the French ]-e-conquered almost all the places taken by 
the Enghsh. This prince possessed a vigourous mind, but a 
delicate constitution of body, and was suddenly carried off in 
his forty-seventh year. He was one of the best of the French 
sovereigns, a patron of hterature, and a sagacious statesman. 
He possessed a library of several hundred volumes ; wbic]i 
was extremely large for the age. 

§ It was through Du Guesclin, a celebrated general, whom the 
king raised to be Constable of France, that the French, after having 
been beaten by the English during thirty years, began to beat the 
latter in turn, 

13. Charles YL, styled the Well Beloved, succeeded to the 
kingdom, 1380. He first made war on the Flemings, whom 
be defeated in the battle of Rosebeck. A formidable inva- 
sion, of which the object was the British shore, failed, in con- 
sequence of a tempest that dispersed and wrecked his ships. 
During this reign, a civil war occurred between the houses of 
Orleans and Burgundy, the cause of which pertained to the 
regency. Charles had fallen into a state of insanity, which, 
of course, rendered a regency necessary. In the midst of the 
contention, and of the miseries which it inflicted on France, 
Henry V. of England, invaded the country, and gained the 
memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this 
victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, was the ac- 
knowledgment of his right to the French throne, on the death 
of Charles. These sovereigns died soon after, and within 
two months of each other. 

§ Charles was a weak prince, and his insanity reduced him almost 
to idiotism. 

The fleet which was fitted out for the invasion of England, con- 
sisted of 1287 sail, of which, sixty were ships of the line. In the 
centre was a wooden city, having a diameter of 3000 paces, pro- 
vided with towers and bastions, and constructed over boats fastened 
together. It was so contrived as to be put together, or taken to 
pieces, in a day ; and was intended to furnish lodgings for the troops, 
when they should be landed. The wreck only, of this singular city, 
reached the British shore. 

Cards were invented in the reign of Charles VI., to amuse that 
monarch, and to relieve him from the melancholy which followed 
his alienation of mind. 

14. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, was crowned at 
Poictiers, 1422, while, at the same time, the infant Henry 

15 



170 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

VI., was crowned at Paris, through the agency of the duke 
of Bedford, the English regent of France. This competi- 
tion issued in war. The first great mihtary operation un- 
dertaken by the EngUsh, was the siege of Orleans, a place of 
the utmost importance. And here a transaction occurred, 
which is one of the most w^onderful on record. This was the 
raismg of the siege, and the consequent deliverance of France 
from the grasp of English power, by means of Joan of Arc, 
otherwise called the Maid of Orleans. The enthusiasm which 
she inspired at this juncture, by pretending to a divine com- 
mission, and by her singular and courageous appearance at 
the head of the French troops, rendered them invincible. 

§ Joan was a young country girl, of twenty-seven years, a domestic 
of a tavernkeeper. Presenting herself to the counqil of Charles, 
who had fled in despair to Dauphine, she declared that God had, in 
a revelation, apprised her that the royal troops would force the ene- 
my to retire from the siege. An assembly of divines pronounced 
her mission to be supernatural ; and, at her own request, she was 
clothed like a man, and, in complete armour, headed the troops. 
A white palfrey bore her gaily to the scene of combat ; while on 
her hanner was displayed the image of our blessed Saviour. The 
Enghsh, raising the siege of Orleans, fled before her. The hopes of 
the nation were raised, as if by a miracle, and other conquests suc- 
ceeded. The impulse which her heroism excited, enabled Charlas 
to extend his triumphs to the banks of the Seine. 

As a recompense for her important services, she was ennobled by 
Charles, together with the whole of her family, and their heirs and 
descendants. After she had effected the object of the mission, she 
requested leave to retire, but she was retained in the service, from 
the belief that it would be benefited by her presence. At the siege 
of Compeigne, not long after, she was made prisoner ; and being 
tried by the English for sorcery, she was condemned to be burned. 
This sentence, which is an eternal disgrace to the judges who pre- 
sided at the trial, was barbarously put into execution. When led to 
the stake, the heroic maid, overcome by her emotions, burst into 
tears. To prolong her tortures, a scaffolding of plaster had been 
contrived, with so great an elevation, that the flames required a con- 
siderable time to penetrate to her body, which was gradually con- 
sumed. 

The tide of fortune turning against the English, they lost 
many of the French provinces ; and, after the battle of For- 
niigny, which was gained by Charles, they lost Paris itself. 
In the southern dominions, however, the French arms were 
paralized, for a time, by the brave Talbot, an illustrious Eng- 
Ush v/arrior. His death, and the fatal disputes between the 



ENGLAND. 171 

houses of York and Lancaster, placed the whole of the 
French monarchy, with the exception of Calais and Greignes, 
under the dominion of Charles, 1450. 

§ The death of this prince was hastened by the undutiful and un- 
natural conduct of his son, the Dauphin. The latter formed a plot to 
cut off his father by poison. This was discovered ; but the king was 
so haunted by the idea of treachery and poison, that he could not be 
prevailed on to receive that degree of nourishment, which was ne- 
cessary to support life. 

The Pragmatic Sanction originated in his reign, in a general as- 
sembly of the clergy and nobility, representing the Gallican church. 
Its aim was, to check the despotism of the popes. The superiority 
of the assemblies of the clergy over the See of Rome, formed the 
basis of its regulations. 

ENGLAND. 

Family of Plantagenet. — Branch of Lancaster. 

14. Edward II., surnamed of Caernarvon, from the 
place of his birth, ascended the throne in 1307. He was the 
opposite of his father in character and disposition, being wxak, 
indolent, and destitute of penetration in selecting his advi- 
sers. Yet his inoffensive disposition, joined witli his misfor- 
tunes, entitles him to respect, as well as commiseration. He 
made war on the Scots, but was terribly defeated by Robert 
Bruce, in the battle of Bannockburn. In consequence of this 
battle, the latter was established on the throne of Scotland, 
1314. Edward was unfortunate in all his connexions. His 
queen, Isabella, sister of the French king, was an ambitious 
and worthless woman, and his favourites were equally de- 
tested by the people, and injurious to their sovereign. Edward, 
at last, fell a victim to his wife's cruelty and lust, and misera- 
bly perished. 

§ It was in obedience to his father's dying request, that Edward in- 
vaded Scotland. He marched at the head of one hundred thousand 
men. Bruce met this immense force with only thirty thousand. 
The army of the latter was however advantageously situated. A hill 
covered his right flank, a morass his left, and to screen his front, he 
had dug deep pits, planted them with stakes, and covered them with 
turf. The English, confident in their superior numbers, rushed for- 
ward without precaution. Their cavalry was entangled in the pits, 
their ranks were broken, and the Scottish horse, pouring through the 
openings, scattered on every side slaughter and dismay. The En- 
glish threw down their arms and fled, and were pursued to the gates 



172 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

of Berwick. The defeat of Edward sunk him in the estimation ol 

liis subjects. 

The most famous of his favourites, were Gaveston, and the two 
Spencers, father and son. The queen, who persuaded the king to 
recal tliem after they had been banished by parliament, at length 
fixed her affections on Mortimer, a powerful baron, A breach soon 
followed between her and the Spencers, and going over to France 
with her paramour, she found the means to form such a party in 
England, that on her return with some French troops, she made her 
husband prisoner, and forced him to abdicate his crown in favour of 
his son, then fourteen years of age. While he was in prison, he 
was put to death by the keepers, who, with infinite barbarity, thrust 
a red hot iron into his bowels, until he was internally consumed. 
These wretches were instigated by Mortimer and the queen. 

15. Edward III., succeeded his father, 1327, under the 
regenc)^ of Isabella and Mortimer. But to such a regency, 
he would not submit. At the age of eighteen, he assumed 
the reins of government, hanged Mortimer at Tyburn, and 
confined the queen, his motlier, for life. 

The conquest of Scotland soon became an object of ambi- 
tion, and marching to the north with a large army, he van- 
quished the Scots at Halidown Hill, with httle loss on the 
side of England. 

On the death of Charles the Fair, in 1328, Edward, having 
a claim to the throne of France, as being the son of Isabella, 
the sister of the deceased king, and first in female succession, 
prepared to assert his claim (since the French rejected it) by 
the fortune of arms. For this purpose, he invaded France 
hi 1339, and from that time to 1360, war raged furiously be- 
tween the two countries, with only occasional suspensions. 

During this long contention, were fought the famous battles 
of Cressy, in 1346, and Poictiers, in 1 356. The battle of 
Cressy w^as fought between Philip, the French king, on the 
one side, and Edward and his son, the Black Prince, on the 
other. The army of Phihp amounted to one hundred thousand 
men, that of the EngUsh, only to thirty thousand. The bat- 
tle of Poictiers was fought between the Black Prince, and 
King John of France. The former commanded only six- 
teen thousand men, while the army of the latter amounted to 
sixty thousand. Notwithstanding the disparity of numbers, 
the English obtained a decided victory in both engagements. 
The heroism of the Black Prince has rendered his name ever 
famous in the annals of war. 



ENGLAND. f 173 

§ In the battle of Cressy, there fell, by a moderate computation, 
twelve hundred French knights, fourteen hundred gentlemen, four 
thousand men-at-arms, besides about thirty thousand of an inferior 
rank. The action seems no less remarkable for the small loss sus- 
tained by the English, than for the prodigious slaughter of the French. 
Among 'the former, there only fell one esquire, and three knights, 
and an inconsiderable number of private men. 

In the battle of Poictiers, the French king was taken prisoner, 
and afterwards was led by the Prince of Wales, in triumph, to Lon- 
don. He was treated with the greatest courtesy by his conqueror. 

Edward, during his absence in France, left his queen, Philippa, with 
the care of the realm. Attacked by the Scots, who invaded England 
soon after the battle of Cressy, she entirely defeated them near Dur- 
ham. David, their king, who had expelled Edward Baliol from the 
throne, was unable to eifect his escape from the field, and thus he 
became a captive at the same time with king John in London. 

16. The decline of Edward's life did not correspond with 
the early part of it. The tide of success turned against him 
in France, and besides the loss of his dominions abroad, he 
felt the decay of his authority at home. His age he unwisely 
devoted to pleasure ; and to complete his disappointment, the 
Prince of Wales died, after a Ungering illness, in his forty- 
sixth year. Never had king a more illustrious son, and 
never did a nation have greater cause to felicitate itself in the 
prospect of having such a model of heroism and virtue for its 
sovereign. The old king did not long survive this melancho- 
ly occurrence. He died in 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of 
his age, and the fifty-first of his reign. 

The English nation has ever taken pride in its Edward 
III., and recurred to his reign, as one of the most glorious in 
its annals. The splendour of his foreign victories, and the 
tranquillity and efficiency of his domestic government, stamp 
the impression of greatness on his mind. But the moral pu- 
rity of his character, and the justice of his wars with France 
and Scotland, are more than questionable. 

17. Richard XL, son of the Black Prince, succeeded to the 
throne, 1377, at the age of eleven years. He was unworthy 
of his great father. Indolence, prodigality, perfidiousness, 
and sensuality, marked his character. His kingdom suffered 
from the distractions attending a regal minority. The con- 
tests for power between his three uncles, the dukes of Lancas- 
ter, York, and Gloucester, who secretly directed the affairs of 
the realm, embroiled all the public measures. An insurrec- 

15* 



174 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. 

tion, headed by Wat Tyler, put the government, for a time^ 
in great jeopardy. While the kingdom was convulsed with 
domestic contests, it was also engaged in hostilities with 
France and Scotland. At length, during the king's absence 
in quelling an insurrection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster 
rose in open rebellion, and compelled Richard, at his return, 
to resign the sceptre into his hands. The parhament con- 
firmed the act, and the king was soon after privately assassi- 
nated or starved to death. Thus began the contention between 
the houses of York and Lancaster. 

§ The finances of the kingdom were exhausted by the wars which 
were carried on with its foreign enemy. As nothing was obtained 
by conquest to repair the waste, parliament found it nece&sary to 
impose a poll tax of three groats on every person, male and female, 
above fifteen years of age. But the minds of the people were un- 
favourably disposed for this measure, and the principles of demo- 
cracy gaining ground, this distich was frequently in the mouths of 
the multitude : 

" When Adam delv'd and Eve span, 
Where was then the gentleman." 

Besides, the injustice of the tax, to which the poor were obliged to 
contribute as much as the rich, was apparent to every body. While 
the character of the measure was viewed in this light, the rigorous 
manner in which it was enforced, seemed insupportable. 

An incident which occurred, respecting the wanton conduct of a 
tax-gatherer, in the family of a blacksmith, aroused the public mind, 
and became the occasion of a wide spread insurrection. The popu- 
lace flew to arms. The spirit immediately pervaded Essex and the 
neighbouring counties. The leaders assuming the feigned names of 
Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and Hob Carter, committed the most out- 
rageous violence on such of the nobility and gentry as came in their 
way. At length, assembling their followers on Blackheath, to the 
amount of one hundred thousand, they broke into London, demand- 
ing certain immunities, which were granted, but in parties still con- 
tinuing to insult and plunder the capital. 

At this juncture, the king, slenderly guarded, met Tyler at the 
licad of a large body of rioters, and entered into conference with 
hun. Tyler ordered his companions to retire, till he should give 
the signal for attack, and then ventured alone into the midst of the 
royal retinue. Here he demeaned himself in so insolent a manner, 
that Walworth, the mayor of London, in a fit of indignation, drew 
his sword and brought him to the ground. He was instantly dis- 
Iiatched by the rest of the king's attendants. Richard's presence of 
mind saved himself and them from the meditated revenge of the 
mutineers. Accosting the enraged multitude with an affable and 
intrepid countenance, he asked them, "What is the meaning of 



ENGLAND. 175 

your disorder ? Are you angry, my good people, that you have 
]ost your leader. I, your king, will be your leader." 

The presence of majesty overawed the multitude, and they im- 
plicitly followed the king. Leading them into the fields, he peacea- 
bly dismissed them, with the same charters which had been granted 
to their fellows. These charters, however, were soon after annulled 
in parliament. 

In regard to the death of Richard, after he was deposed and im- 
prisoned, it was long the prevailing opinion, that his guards fell upon 
him in the castle of Pontefract, and dispatched him with their hai- 
berts. But it is more probable, that he was starved to death in 
prison, for after liis body was exposed in public, no marks of vio- 
lence were found upon it. 

The particular ground of the controversy between the houses of 
York and Lancaster, was, that Edmund Mortimer was the true heir 
to the crown, being descended from Lionel, the second son of Ed- 
ward IIL, whereas Henry, duke of Lancaster, who was placed on 
the throne, was the son of John of Gaunt, the third son of Ed- 
ward III. 

17. Henry IV., was the title which the duke of Lancaster 
assumed, when he came into power. He was surnametl 
Bolingbroke, and the date of his reign is 1400. He was 
immediately oppressed by faction and discontent ; and as a 
righteous retribution, he felt the uneasiness of " the head that 
wears a crown." A rebellion, raised by the earl of Northum- 
berland, for placing Mortimer, of the house of York, the true 
heir, on the throne, first required his attention. The Scotch 
and the Welch took part with the malcontents, but their 
united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and their leader, 
young Peicy, (Hotspur, so named on account of his fiery 
temper,) was killed on the field. 

§ The armies on this occasion were nearly equal in numbers, con- 
sisting of about twelve thousand men, each ; and rarely was there a 
battle in those times, where the shock was more terrible or more 
constant. Henry exposed his person to all the dangers of the field. 
His gallant son, tiie prince of Wales, who afterwards so signalized 
himself by his military exploits, urged on the fight with the utmost 
intrepidity, and even a wound which he received in the face with an 
arrow, could not oblige him to retire. On the other side, Percy and 
Douglas, terrible names, supported their ancient renown. But while 
the armies were contending in the most furious manner, the death 
of Percy, by an unknown hand, decided the victory, and the ad- 
herents of the king won the day. 

18. A second rebellion, headed by the arclibishop of York, 
was quelled by the capital punishment of its author. In the 
reign of this prince, the secular arm was unrighteously ex- 



176 MODEilN HISTORY— PERIOD VII. 

tended against the followers of Wickliffe ; and history records 
the shameful fact, that Henry IV. was the first English mo- 
narch, that made the religion of his subjects, an offence to be 
expiated by the faggot and the scaffold. 

The latter part of his hfe was embittered by the extreme 
profligacy of liis son Henry, prince of Wales, who afterwards 
nobly discarded the vices and follies of his youth. 

§ The following particular merits a recital. One of his abandoned 
companions having been indicted before Sir Wm. Gascoigne, the 
chief justice, the young prince was not ashamed to appear at the 
bar with the criminal, in order to give him countenance and pro- 
tection. Finding that his presence did not over-awe the chief jus- 
tice, he proceeded to insult him on his tribunal. But Gascoigne, 
mindful of his own dignity, and of the majesty of the laws, ordered 
the prince to be committed to prison. Henry, sensible of his error, 
quietly submitted to the order. When the affair was mentioned to 
his father, he is said to have exclaimed, "Happy is the king who 
has a magistrate sufficiently courageous to execute the laws upon 
such an offender ; but still more happy, in having a son willing to 
submit to such chastisement." 

Henry died, 1413, at the age of forty-six, in the fourteenth 
year of his reign. Notwithstanding distinguished military 
talents and pohtical sagacity, he became a most unpopular 
sovereign. The illegahty of his title, may have disaffected 
his subjects towards his person and his reign. He felt the 
miseries of guilt, and became suspicious and jealous. In re- 
ligion, he was bigotted and intolerant. 

19. His son, Henry V., ascended the throne in 1413. He 
laid aside his dissolute habits, as already intimated, and in- 
formed the companions of his pleasures, that they must enter 
on a similar reformation, if they would secure his favour. He 
also received the wise ministers of his father, who had checked 
his riots, with all the marks of esteem and confidence. 

Henry early asserted by arms, the English claim to France. 
Taking advantage of disorders in that kingdom, he invaded 
it with an army of about thirty thousand men, and with 
half that number, defeated the French army, amounting to 
sixty thousand men, on the plains of Agincourt. His own 
loss did not exceed five hundred men, while that of the French 
amounted to twenty-two thousand in killed and prisoners. 

§ Henry drew up his army on a narrow ground, between two 
woods, to cover each flank, and patiently expected an attack, having 
been surprised by the sudden appearance of the French, in great 



ENGLAND. 177 

force, when his own army had been greatly reduced by sickness and 
fatigue. Had the French general declined a combat, the Englisli 
must have relinquished the advantages of their situation ; but the 
impetuous valour of the nobility, and a vain confidence in superior 
numbers, brought on an action, which proved to the English so 
■glorious and successful. 

After this battle, returning to England to recruit his forces, 
he landed again with an army of twenty-five thousand men, 
and fought his way to Paris. The war between Henry and 
the French king, was terminated by the treaty of Troye^ 
1420. Henry then turned his arms with success against tlie 
dauphin, who assumed the style and authority of regent. 
Triumphing signally over his enemy, and realizing most of 
his wishes, he had nearly reached the summit of human 
glory. But his end was approaching, and one of the most 
heroic of the English monarchs, died at the early age of thirty- 
four years, and after a reign of nine years. 

§ The treaty of Troyes was made with the Queen mother, and the 
duke of Burgundy— Charles, the French king, being insane. By 
this treaty it was agreed that he should marry the daughter of 
Charles, and receive the kingdom of France as her dowry, which, 
till the death of her father, he should govern as regent. 

Henry was a true hero, and like all heroes, his views of conquest 
were pernicious in their tendency. Accordingly, England derived 
from his achievements, rather fame than solid advantage. He was 
able in the cabinet as well as in the field— was magnanimous, 
generous, and affable, but had more than the bigotry of his father in 
religion. 

20. Henry YL, at the age of ten months, succeeded his 
father, in 1422, under the regency of the dukes of Gloucester 
and Bedford, the former for England, the latter for France. 
Henry was crowned king of France, at the age of eight 
years. At this era, in order to complete the conquest of that 
kingdom, it remained only to capture Orleans. The duke of 
Bedford, acting as regent of France, had laid siege to the 
place, but he was obliged to raise it by the valour and good 
conduct of Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans. Thus was 
France saved, and England was afterwards stripped of 
almost every conquest it had made in that country. 

When arrived at adult years, Henry proved himself to be 
mild and inoffensive, but deficient in the energy which be- 
comes a sovereign. He had but a slender capacity. These 
defects in the £ing were supplied by his queen, the famous 
Margaret of Anjou, a woman of great talents, ambition, and 



178 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

heroism. She made a conspicuous figure in the wars 
which distracted his reign. 

The insurrection of Jack Cade, was an event of some im- 
portance, and was quelled only after considerable bloodshed. 

§ Jack Cade, a native of Ireland, whose crimes obliged him to retire 
into France, had assumed the name of Mortimer, and at the head of 
20,000 Kentish men, encamped on Blackheath, in this way to Lon- 
don, in order to obtain a redress of grievances. The city opened its 
gates to Cade, who for some time maintained great order among his 
followers ; but at length when he could not prevent them from com- 
mitting depredations and outrages, the citizens, with the assistance 
of some soldiers, repulsed the rebels with great slaughter. Upon 
their submission, they received a general pardon, which was after- 
wards annulled, and both Cade, and many of his followers, were ca- 
pitally punished for their rebellion. 

The duke of Gloucester, who was heir to the crown in 
case the king should die without issue, was the favourite of 
the nation ; but he had opposed the marriage of Henry with 
Margaret, and was therefore marked out by the latter for de- 
struction. He was arrested and sent to prison, where he 
was found dead a few days afterwards. This event, in con- 
nection with the imbecility of the king, encouraged the 
Duke of York to assert his claim to the throne. 

§ The duke of York, who was Richard, son of Lionel, second son of 
Edward III., was, however, averse to violent measures, and his for- 
bearance, when appointed lieutenant of the kingdom, though amia- 
ble and unusual, proved the source of all those furious wars and 
commotions which ensued ; for the queen at length persuaded 
Henr}^ to annul the protectorship of Richard, and place the adminis- 
tration in the hands of the duke of Somerset. Richard then levied 
an army ; but an account of the wars between the houses of York 
and Lancaster, properly belongs to the next period. 

GERMANY. 

21. In the history of the German Empire, is to be no- 
ticed, the rise of the House of Austria, which constitutes an 
important portion of that empire. This event took place in 
the latter part of the former period, viz. 1274, when Rodol- 
phus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was elected emperor of 
Germany. He owed his elevation to the jealousies of the 
electoral princes, who could not agree in the choice of any 
one of themselves. The king of Bohemia, to whom Rodol- 
phus had been steward of the household, could not endure 
the supremacy of his former dependent ; and refusing him 



1 



GERMANY. 179 

the customary homage for his Germanic possessions, Rodol- 
phus stripped him of Austria, which has ever since remained 
in the family of its conqueror. 

When Rodolphus ascended the throne, he found the 
empire distracted and ahnost ruined by anarchy and faction, 
but be restored order by his prudence and lirmness. He 
was a prince generally esteemed for his virtues. 

§ He demolished the retreats of the banditti, that every where in- 
fested the country, and executed great numbers of tlie marauders. 
The following anecdote, among others, is related of him. 

A merchant complaining to him of an innkeeper at Nuremberg, 
who refused to return a sum of money which he had deposited in 
the hands of the latter, Rodolphus, seeing the innl^eeper soon af- 
terwards, took an opportunity of praising liis hat, and proposed 
an exchange. His proposal was naturally accepted, and he sent 
the hat as a token to the innkeeper's wife, desiring, in her husband's 
name, she would deliver to the bearer, the money which a merchant 
had left in his hands. By this stratagem, the plaintiif recovered 
his property, and the innkeeper was sentenced to pay a heavy fine. 
. Rodolphus had seven beautiful daughters, by means of whom, he 
contracted alliances, which proved highly advantageous to his pos- 
terity. He had also seven sons ; but none of these survived him, ex- 
cept the duke of Austria. In Rodolphus began the good fortune of 
the house of Austria, of which he was the founder : a fortune which 
called forth the observation, " that Venus was even more favourable 
to them than Mars." 

22. Adolphus of Nassau, was elected the next emperor of 
Germany, 1291, instead of the duke of Austria, the late em- 
peror's son ; but proving unworthy, he was deposed, and the 
duke, named Albert I., was duly raised to the empire, 1298. 
The pope claimed the empire, but finally acknowledged 
Albert. 

This prince treated the Swiss with great rigour, contrary 
to the conduct of his father. Several of the Cantons w^ere 
his by inheritance, but he formed the design of annexing the 
whole of the provinces to his dominion, and erecting them 
into a principality, for one of his sons. The Swiss revolted. 
The cantons of Schewntz, Uri, and Underwald, which always 
had resisted the authority of Austria, combined to assert their 
freedom ; and a small army of four hundred or five hundred 
men, defeated an immense host of the Austrians, in the pass 
of Morgate, 1315. The rest of the Cantons, by degrees, 
joined the association, and with invincible perseverance, after 
sixty pitched battles with their enemies, they effected their 



180 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

freedom. It was the famous William Tell, who was instru- 
mental in producing this revolution, and in laying the foun- 
dation of his country's Uberty. 

§ In so brief an outline of history as is attempted in this work, it 
will be impossible to include a separate account of every country* 
Several of the smaller ones must therefore be noticed in the account 
of others, or be grouped together. As this seems to be a fit place to 
touch on the affairs of Switzerland, a few particulars may be added. 
The story of William Tell, deserves a record. In this story is ex- 
emplified an instance of the lawless tyranny of the governor of 
Switzerland. 

Geisler, governor of the Canton of Uri, had ordered his hat to be 
fixed upon a pole in a certain place, and commanded every passen- 
ger, on pain of death, to pay the same obeisance to it as to himself. 
Tell, an inhabitant of Uri, indignant at this insulting mark of wanton 
tyranny, disdained to pay the homage required. TelPs death wa.s 
determined, and he was condemned to be hanged, unless he should 
be able to strike with his arrow, an apple placed upon the head of 
his son. Being an excellent marksman, he accepted the alternative, 
and providentially cleft the apple without injuring the child. Geisler 
perceiving another arrow in his belt, asked him for what purpose 
that was intended. Tell heroically replied, " It was designed for 
you, if I had killed my son." 

Condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a dungeon for this an 
swer, he was bound and thrown into a boat, that Geisler himself 
might convey him across the lake of Altorf, to his castle. In the 
midst of the passage, a furious squall arose, and the cowardly go- 
vernor was so intimidated by the danger he was in, that he unbound 
Tell, who was a most skilful boatman, and entreated him to row him 
safely across the lake. Tell soon effected his escape by swimming 
to the shore, and had an opportunity by the time Geisler arrived, to 
pierce the tyrant's heart with an arrow. This event paved the way 
for tiie conspiracy which followed. 

23. Eight emperors succeeded Albert, during the remain- 
d^ of this period; but a connected account of their reigns 
need not here be given. A few scattered particulars may be 
found below. 

§ In the reign of Henry VIII., Germany groaned under all the 
miseries of plague and famine, by which whole towns were depopu- 
lated, and provinces brought to desolation. The rich sought an 
asylum in other countries, while the poor perished without pity or 
assistance ; wolves, and other beasts of prey, compelled by hunger, 
quitted their dens, and rushing into the villages, satiated themselves 
whh human blood ; cataracts of water, bursting from the mountains, 
swept trees and houses before them with dreadful impetuosity ; and 
the earth was convulsed by frequent shocks, which seemed to agitate 
it to its centre. 

While Louis V. held the imperial sceptre, a spirit of fanaticism 



CHINA. 181 

broke out in Alsace, and the lower class cf people assembled under 
the banners of an innkeeper, who erected himself into a prophet, and 
persuaded his followers, that it was their indispensable duty to re- 
venge the death of Christ, by an extirpation of the Jews. In obe- 
dience to this doctrine, they massacred great multitudes of that un- 
happy nation. In one place the carnage was so great, that the Jews 
themselves augmented the horror of the scene ; for, being driven to 
despair, they butchered their own wives and children, and then 
murdered themselves, to elude the cruelty of their inhuman enemies. 
After some time, however, these frantic enthusiasts were driven out 
of the province ; their sanguinary leader perished by the hands of 
the executioner, and the surviving Jews were permitted to live in 
peace. 

In 1356, Charles IV., issued the celebrated Golden Bull, containing 
a declaration of the fundamental laws of the empire. The edict 
was so called from a golden seal termed Bulla. 

The emperor Sigismund, became also king of Bohemia, in con- 
sequence of the death of his brother Winceslas. It was this empe- 
ror who betrayed the celebrated reformer, John Huss, to the Elector 
Palatine, who caused him to be burnt alive. The next year, Jerome 
of Prague suffered the same fate. 

CHINA. 

24. A part of the twentieth and twenty-first dynasties of 
the empire of China, is included in the present period. In 
the reign of Shistu of the twentieth dynasty, the famous 
canal was dug, which is nine hundred miles in length. Un- 
der some of the princes of this dynasty, the religion of Fo 
was established in the empire. Shunti was the last of the 
Tartar race, who held the sceptre in China. 

The twenty-first dynasty was that of Ming, founded by 
Chu, who, ascending the throne, took the name of Fay-tsu. 
This dynasty, which commenced in 1368, lasted two hundred 
and eighty-one years, under seventeen emperors. 

§ Chu had been a servant in the monastery of the bonzes. Head- 
ing a numerous company of revolters, he reduced many considera- 
ble cities and provinces, and defeated the imperial army in a battle. 
His successes were so great, that he assumed the title of emperor, 
and fixed his court at Nankin. In a few months, however, he made 
himself master of Pekin, and erected that country into a sovereign- 
ty, which he gave to his fourth son. He proved to be a prince of 
great wisdom and penetration. 

It is related of Ching-tsu, one of the emperors of this dj-Tiasty, 
that when specimens of precious stones were brought to nim from 
a mine which had lately been discovered, he ordered it to be shut up, 
alleging, that it only harrassed his people with useless toil, as these 
stones could neither feed nor clothe them in times of scarcity. 

16 



182 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. 

Distinguished Characters in Period VII. 

1. Dante and > ^^^^^.^ j^^^.^^^ 

2. Petrarch, ) 

3. Boccace, an Italian, one of the restorers of learning. 

4. Wickliffe, an English theologian and reformer. 

5. Froissart, an entertaining French chronicler. 

6. Gower, and ) ^^^j^^^^ of English poetry. 
/ . Onaucei , ^ 

§ 1. Dante, (Alighieri,) who died at the age of fifty-seven years, 
early displayed poetical talents ; but the ambition of being elevated 
among the ruling men of his native city, engaged him in continual 
discord and faction. He and his party were at length defeated, and 
with them he sought safety in banishment. While he was in this 
situation, he vented the bitterest reproaches against his enemies. 
The occasion of his death was, an affront whicli he received from 
the Venetians. The prince of Ravenna, (in which place he was in 
exile,) sent him to negociate with the Venetians, in order to avert a 
threatened war ; but the magistrates of Venice treated the embassa- 
dor with contempt, and refused to receive him within their walls. 
The irritable heart of Dante was so affected by this affront, that he 
could not survive it, and he died on his return to Ravenna. 

His literary works owe their origin to his misfortunes and re- 
vengeful spirit. His great object seems to have been to pierce his 
enemies with the shafts of satire. The rancour of his feeling, min- 
gled itself with the sweetness and graces of poetry. His poems 
are characterized by spirit, fire, and sublimity. His triple poem, 
of Paradise, Purgatory, and Hell, displays wonderful powers of 
genius. 

2. Petrarch (Francis) is deservedly celebrated as one of the re- 
storers of classical learning, and more, perhaps, than any other per- 
son, as the father of modern poetry. He displayed all the powers 
of genius and poetical inspiration, not only in his own native lan- 
guage, but in Latin. His sonnets are esteemed the sweetest, most 
elegant, and most highly finished verses, ever written in Italian ; and 
his songs possess uncommon beauty and grace. Petrarch had a 
most charming fancy. 

Some of the events of his life are rather singular ; particularly 
his inextinguishable passion for his mistress Laura. He first saw 
this beautiful female in 1627, after he had fixed his residence at 
Vaucluse, near Avignon, and he was smitten with all the pangs of 
love. But though the soft passion was expressed in the softest lan- 
guage of poetry, the heart of the fair one was by no means moved. 
To divert the melancholy which ensued, he travelled through va- 
rious countries, and was at last persuaded to enter into the service of 
Pope John XXH. But, " amor vincit omnia," and Petrarch, abandon- 
ing the pleasures of curiosity and of greatness, fled to the shades of 
Vaucluse, to converse with his beloved Laura. He again devo- 
te his hours to studious pursuits, and to the amatory effusions of 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 183 

his muse. But though the idolized fair one heeded not his poetry, 
the world did ; and Rome, Paris, and Naples, at the same moment, 
invited him to come and receive the poetical crown. Rome pre- 
vailed, and in that famed seat of empire and of genius, the poet's 
brow was entwined with the resplendent honour. He was occasion- 
ally drawn from his favourite residence, on public business ; and it 
was during an absence in 1348, that he was informed of Laura's 
death, which aifected him with the deepest gloom. 

The poet's purity in this affair, has been maintained by some, and 
denied by others ; and some parts of his character certainly afford 
too much ground for the opinion of the latter. Petrarch was an 
ecclesiastic, though he never took priest's orders. He died at the 
age of seventy, 1374. 

3. Boccace, (John,) born at Certaldo, in Tuscany, 1313, studied 
under Petrarch, who was his friend and patron. He lived abroad 
for a time, but afterwards returned to his native village, where he 
spent the remainder of his days, in literary pursuits. His constitu- 
tion was weakened by his great application, and he died of a sick- 
ness in the stomach, 1375. 

His works are both Latin and Italian. He possessed uncommon 
learning, and he sliares with a few others the honour of contribut- 
ing to the revival of learning in Europe. " Decameron," a licen- 
tious, though witty, satirical, and elegantly written romance, is his 
most celebrated composition. His poetry is not equal to that of 
Petrarch, but his prose is unrivalled, for its simplicity, grace, and 
varied elegance. 

4. Wickliffe, (John de) was professor of divinity, in the Universi- 
ty of Oxford, and deservedly considered as the forerunner of Lu- 
ther, in the reformation. His elevation to the professorship of Ox- 
ford, exposed him to the jealousy of the monks, and he was soon dis- 
placed. He felt the indignity keenly, and it was not long before he 
boldly came out against the errors and encroachments of Rome. 
The Romish clergy, with the pope at their head, took the alarm, and 
employed every effort to suppress the doctrines of Wickliffe. Most 
of his doctrines were pronounced as heretical, by the several coun- 
cils that were called. He was seized as a heretic, by the emissaries 
of the Pope, and tried; but the judges, although they enjoined him 
silence, permitted him to depart in safety, as they feared the nobility 
and people. These, in general, favoured Wickliffe. Not at all in- 
timidated, the reformer continued to preach his peculiar sentiments, 
and they became still more widely known. But the penal statutes 
were severe, and some who embraced the new heresy, were deliver- 
ed over to punishment. 

Wickliffe, in the mysterious providence of God, died at a time 
when nothing was wanting to emancipate the English nation from 
the tyranny of Rome, but the boldness, perseverance, and eloquence 
of a popular leader. Wickliffe's noble struggle proved almost abor- 
tive, and little was thought of it, till Luther arose to establish the 
same doctrines on an imperishable basis. 



184 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. 

Trialogiis, is almost the only work of Wickliffe's that was 
printed. 

5. Froissart, (John,) as an historian, excelled all the writers of 
his time. His narrative of the events which took place in England^ 
France, and Spahi, from 1326 to 1400, is exceedingly lively and en- 
tertaining. He personally witnessed many transactions Avhich he 
has described. He was a chronicler both of political events and of 
chivalric manners. He was bred to the church, but he was a great- 
er reader of romances, than of his breviar)'-. Of gayety, he was 
fond to an excessive degree. " Well loved I," as he said of his 
youth, in one of his poems, (for he wrote poetry as well as history,) 
" to see dances and carolling, and to hear the songs of minstrels, 
and tales of glee. It pleased me to attach myself to those who took 
delight in hounds and hawks." " My ears quickened at the sound 
of opening the wine flask ; for I took great pleasure in drinking, 
and in fair array, and in fresh and delicate viands." He began his 
chronicle at the age of twenty, and continued it many years, travel- 
ling through England, Scotland, France, and other places. He was 
born at Valenciennes, in the year 1337, and died in 1397. 

6. Gower (Sir John) was born in Yorkshire, 1320. He was emi- 
nent, both in law and poetry. He is, by some, associated with Chau- 
cer, as a father of English poetry. He lived a little longer than 
Chaucer, though born eight years sooner, and was the successor of 
the latter in the laurel. His principal production in poetry, was 
" Confessio Amantis ;" though he left behind, other poems of con- 
siderable spirit and energy. Though gentle in manner, he inveighed 
boldly against the debaucheries of the times, the immorahty of the 
clergy, the wickedness of corrupt judges, and the vices of an aban- 
doned court. He died at the age of eighty-two. 

7. Chaucer (Geoffrey) was born in London, 1328. Compared with 
Chaucer, all who preceded him, not excepting Gower, were merely 
pioneers in English poetry : they were scarcely poets. He is, there- 
fore, more commonly considered the father of English song. Though 
in the idiom of the fourteenth century, his poetry is not devoid ol 
great smoothness and delicacy ; the sentiments are bold, the charac- 
ters are well supported, and the genius of the poet is every where 
brilliant, sprightly, and sublime. The Canterbury Tales, are his 
best production. 

Chaucer enjoyed a signal share in the favours of royalty, and his 
honours and emoluments exceeded far the ordinary lot of poets. 
This circumstance may, perhaps, be partly owing to the fact, that 
he had a princely brother-in-law, John Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 
At one period of his life, he suffered persecution, in consequence ot 
embracing the tenets of Wickliffe. The latter part of his days was 
spent at a distance from the bustle and intrigues of public hfe, and 
in his retirement at Woodstock, and afterwards at Donnington, he 
devoted himself to the cultivation of his muse. He died 25th Oc- 
tober, 1400. 



TURKISH EMPIRE. 



PERIOD VIII. 



185 



The period of the Reformation ; extending from the Ta- 
king of Constantinople^ 1453 years A. C., to the Edict 
of Nantes^ 1598 years A. C. 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

Sect. 1. The history of the Turkish Empire, at this era, 
is signaUzed by the taking of Constantinople, and the con- 
sequent extinction of the Eastern Empire of the Romans, 
1453. The Turks effected the object under Mahomet the 
Great, the Turkish Sultan. 

Constantine was the name of the last emperor of the 
East, as it was also the name of the first. His dominions 
had become exceedingly circumscribed. The Turks had 
gradually encroached upon its borders, and Constantinople 
would soon have become the seat of the Ottoman power, 
had they not been obhged to defend themselves against the 
Tartars. 

Mahomet II., after some delay, commenced the project 
which had long engaged the attention of the Turks. The 
indolent inhabitants of Constantinople, made but a feeble 
preparation for defence, and all Europe was supine and in- 
different. The city was assailed both by sea and land — the 
walls were battered down with cannon, and all who opposed 
were massacred. The emperor was slain, and the city soon 
surrendered. The Turks forbore to destroy the imperial 
edifices, and the churches were converted into mosques. The 
exercise of their religion, however, was allowed to all the 
christians, and they have, till lately, chosen their own patri- 
arch. The Eastern empire, from the building of its capital, 
had subsisted 1123 years. 

After the fall of Constantinople, Greece and Epirus were 
subdued ; and Italy might probably have shared a similar 
. fate, but for the fleet of the Venetians, who opposed the arms 
of Mahomet with considerable success : but peace was soon 
concluded between the hostile powers. The death of Ma- 
homet the Great, occurred 1481. 

16* 



186 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. 

§ Mahomet was a youth of only about twenty-one years, when he 
undertook the project of extinguishing the empire of the East. 
The force with which he invested Constantinople, was fully adequate 
to the object, being nearly three hundred thousand men ; while the 
whole population of that city, did not amount to more than one 
hundred thousand. 

The Greeks, notwithstanding their degeneracy, displayed con- 
siderable bravery. Their all was at stake, and a small but faithful 
band adhered to Constantine, till they were nearly annihilated. 
Seeing his dearest friends fall by his side, and himself at last re- 
maining, surrounded only by enemies, he exclaimed in the bitterness 
of grief, " Has death then made such havoc, that not one Christian 
is left to take my life?" As he spoke, a Turk to whom his person 
was unknown, for he had prudently laid aside the purple, struck 
Iiim in the face ; a second blow succeeded from another hand ; and 
he fell, in the forty-ninth year of his age, a glorious example of 
lionourable resolution, in expiring with his defenders, rather than 
surviving them. 

Mahomet liberally patronized the arts and sciences ; and 
to compensate for the migration of those learned Greeks, 
who, on the fall of the empire, spread themselves over the 
countries of Europe, invited both artists and men of letters 
to his capital from other kingdoms. 

The successors of this sovereign during the remainder of 
the present period, were Bajazet II., Sehm I., Solyman I., 
Selim II., Amurath III., and Mahomet III. 

§ Bajazet II., prosecuted various wars against the Hungarians, 
Venetians, Persians, and Saracens, but having resigned the govern- 
ment to his son, who had revolted and was supported by the 
Janizaries, he was soon after poisoned by the order of the latter. 
. His son and successor, Selim I., was a prosperous, but tyrannical 
prince ; who, in 1517, conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, 
Damascus, and Gaza. 

Solyman I., surnamed the Magnificent, succeeded Sehm in 1520 ; 
and was one of the most accomplished, enterprising, successful, and 
warlike of the Turkish princes. He took Buda, and besieged Vien- 
na. From the latter place, however, he was obliged to retire with' 
the loss of eighty thousand men. 

Selim II., his son, besieged and took Cyprus and Tunis ; but his 
fleet was defeated at Lepanto, with the capture or destruction of 
almost all his ships. 

Amurath III. strangled his five brothers immediately upon his ac- 
cession. This prince extended his dominions by the addition of 
Kaab in Hungary, and of Tibris in Persia. In this reign, the Jani- 
zaries having lost their submission, and in great part, their discipline, 
began to kill their commanders, whenever they were dissatisfied 
with them. 

His son, Mahomet III. was a monster of barbarity, having begun 



ITALIAN STATES. 187 

his reign by strangling his nineteen brothers, and drowning ten of 
his father's wives. He finally put to death his eldest son, a prince 
of estimable qualities, on an unfounded suspicion of ambitious views. 

ITALIAN STATES. 

2. We shall pursue the history of Italy, by giving an ac- 
count of only two or three of the States of which it was 
composed. The events in the Italian history are not politi- 
cally important at this era. It is chiefly in reference to the 
influence of Florence on the literature of the times, and the 
ecclesiastical influence of the Papal dominions, that these 
portions of Italy will be brought more particularly into view. 
Florence, under the Medici, enjoyed a high degree of 
splendour, during this period. It was an era, in the cultiva- 
tion of the sciences and elegant arts. The family of the 
Medici held sway in this country from the year 1428 to 
1569, Avhen Cosmo de Medici the Great was entitled Grand 
Duke of Tuscany. Under the title of the RepubHc of 
Florence, which they governed, were included not only Tus- 
cany, of which Florence is the capital, but Modena, Mantua, 
and one or two other states. 

§ Cosmo de Medici died in 1464, who, though the private subject 
of a republic, had more riches than any king in Europe, and laid out 
more money in works of taste, learning, and charity, than all the 
kings, princes, and states, of that or the subsequent age, the indi- 
viduals of his own ftimily excepted. His religious foundations were 
unrivalled. His private buildings were equally sumptuous. No 
palace in Europe at that time exceeded his in Florence. He had be- 
sides many others. With all this public magnificence and expendi- 
ture, he was in his private conversation, humble and unassuming ; 
and in his person plain and modest. He was not celebrated for 
learning, though he was the greatest patron of learned men of his 
age. 

Cosmo was succeeded in the government by his son Peter, and he 
by his sons Lorenzo and Giuliano. The latter was soon murdered, 
and Lorenzo died aged no more than fifty-four years, illustrious like 
his predecessors, in every public and private virtue. 

The tranquillity of the republic was much disturbed by wars with 
the Venetians and Genoese, for many years. In the course of these 
commotions, Florence assumed the popular government, but it was 
quickly reversed by the emperor Charles V., who, laying siege to the 
city, forced it to capitulate, and restored the family of the Medici. 

Cosmo, the second of that name, now (1537) succeeded to the ducal 
3rown, which he wore with honour, during thirty-eight years. The 
encouragement he gave to the practice and study of all the fine arts, 



188 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

proves him to have been one of the greatest patrons of human geni- 
us, since the days of Augustus. The names of his sons were John 
and Garcia. The latter was of a furious, vindictive disposition, and 
quarrelUng one day with his brother, stabbed him to the heart with 
a dagger. The father charged him with the murder, but the youth 
denying it, was introduced into the room where the body lay, which 
is said to have bled, (doubtless by chance,) at his approach. He 
then threw himself at his father's feet, and confessed his guilt. The 
father, who had resolved on the part he was to act, solemnly desired 
his son to prepare for death, adding, that he ought to think himself 
happy in losing a life he was unworthy to enjoy, by the hands of 
him who gave it. He then unsheathed the dagger with which the 
cardinal had been murdered, and plunged it into the bosom of his 
son. 

3. That part of Italy which constitutes the dominions of 
his holiness, became the scene of much crime and conten- 
tion during this period. Both the temporal and spiritual pow- 
er of the popes, was now at its height. In 1498, the papacy 
was enjoyed by Alexander YL, a monster of wickedness. 
Charles YIIL, of France, had resolved on an expedition into 
Italy. The pope and the duke of Milan, who encouraged 
him in it, immediately betrayed him, and joined the interest 
of the king of Naples, who was the object of attack on the 
part of Charles. The latter, however, now first besieged the 
pope in Rome, and forced him to submission, but at length 
devoutly kissed his feet. He then marched against Naples, 
while its timid prince, Alphonso, fled to Sicily, after absolving 
his subjects from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples 
in triumph, but lost his new kingdom almost as soon as he 
had gained it. A league was formed against Charles, be- 
tween the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Arra- 
gon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians ; and on his re- 
turn to France, the troops he had left to guard his conquests, 
were all driven from Italy. 

§ It has been remarked, that from the decisive effect of this con- 
federacy, the sovereigns of Europe derived a useful lesson of policy, 
and first adopted the idea of preserving a balance of power, by that 
tacit league, which is understood to be always subsisting, for the 
prevention of the co-ordinate aggrandizement of any particular state. 
History relates with horror, the crimes of Alexander VI., and his 
son Csesar Borgia : their murders, robberies, profanations, and in- 
cests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of their 
ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind. Their death 
seems to have been a sort of retribution for their crimes, so far as 
retribution is known on earth. 



FRANCE. 189 

If an author, Guicciardini, who was a mortal enemy to Alexan- 
der, may be believed, Borgia had sent a present of some flasks of 
poisoned wine to the cardinal of Corneto, in whose garden they pro- 
posed to sup, but ordered the servant to give none of it to any per- 
son. Alexander soon after coming into the garden, and calling for 
wine before supper, the servant gave him some from the poisoned 
flasks, thinking the prohibition could not extend to the Pope, how- 
ever rare and valuable the wine might be ; and Borgia, in the mean 
time appearing, unconsciously drank of the same wine with his 
father. They both immediately felt the symptoms of the poison, 
and Alexander died the next day ; but Borgia, having drank his wine 
much diluted, survived with the loss of his skin and hair. He was 
afterwards stripped of all his possessions by Pope Julius II., and at 
last perished in miserable obscurity in Spain. 

FRANCE. 

Branch of Valois. — Branch of Orleans. 

4. Louis XI., began to reign in 1461. He immediately 
removed all his late father's ministers, proceeded to humble the 
nobles, and in almost every respect acted the tyrant towards 
his subjects. Indeed, his character is that of a most deceitful, 
profligate and cruel prince ; he followed too nearly the odious 
Tiberius in his measures. He left, however, some good regu- 
lations for the encouragement of commerce, and for the ef- 
fectual administration of justice. Notwithstanding the odious- 
ness of his character, he was the first of the French kings, on 
whom the title of His most Christian Majesty was conferred. 
§ His severity occasioned a revolt of several of the first lords of 
the kingdom. The war which thence arose, they entitled " the war 
of the public good." His sanguinary disposition is evidenced by 
the following fact. When he pronounced sentence of death on a 
certain nobleman, he ordered that his infant children should be placed 
beneath the scaffold, to be sprinkled by the blood which gushed 
from the body of their parent. This was an almost incredible 
instance of refined cruelty, and cold barbarity. Louis died a victim 
of superstitious terror and remorse of conscience. 

5. Charles VIII., surnamed the Afl^able, at the age of 
thirteen years, succeeded his father, under the regency of 
Anne of France, his sister, 1483. His marriage with Anne 
of Brittany, who was promised to Maximilian of Austria, 
occasioned a short war with the Germans. His expedition 
into Italy, and his conquest and subsequent loss of Naples, 
have already been noticed in the Italian history. He reign- 
ed about fifteen years. 



190 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. 

§ His surname is indicative of his disposition and manners, but he 
led a life of intemperance, and was early cut off by this vice, in his 
twenty-eighth year. The direct line of Philip of Valois terminated 
with this monarch, as he left no issue. 

6. Louis XII., who was duke of Orleans, and great grand- 
son of Charles V., ascended the throne as the nearest heir, 
1498. He was idoUzed by the French, and obtained and 
deserved the title of " The Father of his People," by his 
frugal policy, which eased them from taxes. Yet he was am- 
bitious and imprudent in his military enterprises. 

He conquered the Milanese and Genoa, but in prosecuting 
his claim to Naples, though he obtained some advantage at 
first, he was unsuccessful in the end. He was duped by his 
associates, Ferdinand of Spain, and pope Alexander VI. 
The whole of Naples finally fell into the treacherous hands 
of Ferdinand ; nor did the French king long retain his 
other conquests in Italy, since they revolted from him on the 
first opportunity. Louis died suddenly, while preparing to 
recover, by arms, his lost Italian possessions. 

§ In justifying himself for the pardon of his enemies, Louis 
made an observation worthy of royalty. " The king of France does 
not revenge the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." What this 
prince also said in vindication of his economy, will always be praised. 
" I had rather see my courtiers laugh at my avarice, than my people 
weep on account of my expenses." It was an unhappiness, how- 
ever, that he procured, in part, his supplies of money by the sale of 
offices, which was a very dangerous example. 

7. Francis I., count of Angouleme, was called to the throne, 
1515, Louis having died without male issue. He was a ne- 
phew of the late king, and began his reign at the age of 
twenty-one. 

His real power, and the high opinion which he entertained 
of his own greatness, led him, in 1519, into competition with 
the celebrated Charles V., who had just ascended the throne 
of Spain. Charles, as grandson of the emperor Maximilian, 
upon the death of the latter, preferred his claim to the empire, 
but was opposed by Francis. Charles obtained the election, 
and these princes now became sworn enemies. Their mu- 
tual claims on each other's dominions, caused seas of blood to 
flowj in wars that lasted more than thirty -eight years. 

§ Francis began hostilities by attacking Navarre. He first won and 
then lost that kingdom. The emperor attacked Picardy, and his 
troops at the same time wrested Milan out of the hands of the French. 



FRANCE. 191 

Henry VIII., of England, whose friendship had been assiduously 
courted by both parties, was brought over for a time to the side of 
Charles. 

Just at this juncture, Francis, unfortunately, quarrelled with his 
nest general, the constable of Bourbon, who revenged himself by 
deserting to the emperor. The constable was invested with com- 
mand in the army of Charles, and thus greatly added to the supe- 
riority which was already apparent in the generals of the latter. The 
consequences were such as might have been expected. The French 
were defeated in the battle of Biagrassa. In this engagement, Bay- 
ard, the model of knights, perished. At his death, he replied to the 
marks of pity shown by the duke of Bourbon, with these words ; " It 
is you who ought to be pitied, for fighting against your king, your 
country, and your oaths." 

A temporary success attended the French arms in the capture of 
the capital of the Milanese ; but a sad reverse soon followed in the 
battle of Pavia. That battle was fought on the 24th of Febniary, 
1525, and resembled in its catastrophe, those won by the English at 
Poictiers and Agincourt. Twenty-five thousand French were slain, 
and Francis himself made prisoner. He had the mortification to 
find himself the captive of that very man, the constable, whom he 
had treated with the greatest hauteur. 

Europe being alarmed by the aggrandizement of Charles, a league 
of several states was formed against him, in favour of the captive mo- 
narch. In this league, England was included. The emperor was 
thus in a manner forced to liberate his prisoner, and he derived little 
benefit from his good fortune. The severity of the terms respecting 
his ransom was such, that the states general refused to fulfil them. 

On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France, 
but the powerful Charles was not intimidated. Resolving on an in- 
vasion of his enemy's country, he inundated Provence with fifty 
thousand men. But the defensive operations of the French were 
very successful, and Charles returned sorrowfully into Italy, having 
lost the one half of his army, cut off by diseases and famine. 

In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for ten 
years, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and on the 
part of Francis, was treated with the utmost courtesy and hospitality. 
He had previously stipulated to grant the French king the investi- 
ture of Milan. But though he was every where received with the 
utmost pomp, and staid seven days in Paris, where he was loaded 
with every mark of friendship and confidence, he left no authentic 
testimony of his promise. 

The seeds of a renewed contest were thus sown, but though the 
French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, they derived from 
it little or no advantage. The Imperialists, on the whole, had a de- 
cided superiority, and France must have been ruined had not tte 
disorders of Germany forced the emperor to conclude the treaty 
of Crepi, with Francis, 1544. The latter purchased a peace with 
Henry VIII., who had once more changed sides, and favoured 
Charles. 



192 MODERN HISTORY.^ PERIOD VIII. 

8, Francis died in 1547. He has the reputation of a great 
prince, and would have appeared greater, but for the manifest 
superiority of his illustrious rival. Notwithstanding the wars 
in which France was engaged during the reign of this mo- 
narch, he left his kingdom in a flourishing and prosperous 
state. Literature and the arts made great progress in France 
under his auspices, and the French court acquired that polish 
and refinement in taste and manners, for which it has since 
beeu so conspicuous throughout the world. 

§ " The fine qualities of this prince," says Millot, " his open temper, 
beneficence, lionour, generosity, and courage, have not been able to 
cover his faults, rashness in his enterprises, neghgence in his affairs, 
fickleness in his conduct, prodigality in his expenses, and excess in 
his pleasures. Whatever merit he was possessed of, he would have 
met with fewer encomiums, had he not caressed and favoured men 
of letters, by whose suffrages the reputation of sovereigns is fixed. 
He founded the royal college and printing house. At the same time 
that he encouraged the culture of the learned languages, he had the 
prudence to command that the public acts should be written in 
French. In the same manner, he gave life to the fine arts, buill 
Fontainbleau, and began the Louvre. In order to polish the man- 
ners of the court, he drew to it the most respectable women and 
distinguished prelates." 

9. Henry II. succeeded his father in 1547. This prince, 
though brave and polite, was the slave of pleasure, and the 
dupe of favourites. He continued the war in which his father 
had been engaged with Charles Y., and that emperor's son 
Philip II., of Spain. He obtained considerable advantage ovei 
Charles at the siege of Metz, but was terribly defeated by Phi- 
lip, at St. Q,uentin. The event most glorious to his reign, 
was the recovery of Calais from the English, in 1557. The 
duke of Guise captured the place in eight days, to the sur- 
prise of all Europe. 

The origin of those civil wars which distracted France 
during the three succeeding reigns, may be dated from this 
reign, or rather from that of Francis L, when the Huguenots, 
who were Calvinists, or Protestants, began to be persecuted. 
The spirit of persecution greatly increased during the reign 
of Henry. 

§ The death of this monarch was owing to an accident which befel 
him at a tournament. Wishing to amuse the ladies with a tilt be 
tween himself and the count of Montgomery, who was esteemed 
the most dexterous justler of his time, he gaily entered the lists. In 
their rencounter both their lances were broken, and the count 



FRANCE. 193 

thrown from his horse. In his fall, the broken trunk of the spear, 
still remaining in his hand, struck the king's right eye, and produced 
so violent a contusion as to terminate his life. 

10. His son, Francis 11., was raised to the throne in 1559. 
He was the husband of Mary, queen of Scots, and died the 
next year, having reigned about seventeen months. The 
only important event in this reign, was tlie conspiracy of the 
Protestants against the king, and the Guises, wlio were five 
brothers, at the iiead of tlic Catholics. Two of these, the 
duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine, were conspicu- 
ous in the government. This conspiracy was detected, and 
1200 of those engaged in it, were put to death. 

§ The Protestants were wearied with the persecutions they had so 
long endured, and came to a resolution to devote their lives to the 
defence of tlieir liberties. They were secretly abetted by the prince 
of Conde, brother to the king of Navarre. The prince, however, 
escaped punishment, having pleaded his cause before the king, in 
person. 

11. Charles IX., a boy only ten 5^ears old, succeeded his 
brother, 1560, under the regency of Catharine de Medicis, 
who had been the wife of Henry, and was notorious for her 
profligacy and ambition. Tlie difficulties between the Catho- 
lics and Protestants had arisen to a great height. Some of 
the first men of tlie French court, were included among the 
latter, particularly the prince of Conde and Admiral Cohgny. 
Their influence was too great to be resisted ; and after the 
conference held at Poissy, lijjerty was granted to the Protes- 
tants to exercise their worship without the walls of the towns. 
The violation, soon after, of the edict granting this liberty, oc- 
casioned the sanguinary civil war, which lor a long time 
filled France Avith misery and jjiood. 

§ Tlie Protestant religion had spread greatly at court, as well as 
in the capital and the provinces, even under Francis I. The perse- 
cution of the Protestants under Henry II., only increased their num- 
ber, and produced that exasperation of feeling, which ended in the 
conspiracy, already meutioned, under Francis IJ. 

The celebrated conference at Poissy, was attended by the young 
king, the queen mother, and the whole court. Theodore IJeza, an illus- 
trious reformer, defended the Protestants, while the cardinal of Lor- 
raine, undertook the cause of the Catholics. Both parties, as is usual 
on such occasions, claimed the victory. It was, however, difficult 
any longer to refuse certain concessions to the Protestants. Indeed, 
the queen mother found it politic to grant them liberty of worship, 
and to favour the prince of Conde, in order to counterbalance the 
power of the Guises. 

17 



194 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

The Protestants, in the war which ensued, were headed by Admi- 
ral Coligny, who was assisted by 10,000 Germans from the Palati- 
nate. The command of the Catholics was assumed by Guise and 
Montmorency, who were aided by Philip of Spain. The latter were 
always victorious, though the Protestants were too powerful to be 
despised ; and in the conditions of peace which they obtained, was 
included the toleration of their religion. Murders and assassina- 
tions aggravated the horrors of civil war. The duke of Guise fell 
by the hand of a religious enthusiast. And even the peace which 
was secured, was only a prelude to more awful scenes of atrocity 
and blood. 

It became now the policy of tlie government to caress the Protes- 
tants, in order to destroy them. They received extraordinary marks 
of favour; even the prudence of Coligny v/as lulled asleep ; and on 
the occasion of the marriage of the king of Navarre with the sister 
of Charles, these persecuted people were allured to court. By the 
order of the government, a dreadful massacre of the Protestants 
then took place, the horrid plan having been all previously arranged. 
On the night of the twenty-third of August, it being St. Bartholo- 
mew's, there perished in Paris and France, 60,000, some reckon. 
100,000 Protestants. The duke of Guise (Henry, son of Francis) 
went in person to Coligny's gate, and caused that great man to be 
murdered. The streets and liouses in Paris floated in blood. The 
king barbarously fired upon his unhappy subjects, and afterwards 
beheld with pleasure Coligny's body insulted by the populace. 

To crown this horrid act, the king declared that every thing was 
done by his command ; the parliament ordered an annual procession 
to celebrate the deliverance of the kingdom ; a medal was struck 
with this legend, jiiety put the sword into the hands of justice ; 
and at Rome and in Spain, the massacre was made a subject of 
public rejoicings. 

Calvinism was not at all crushed by this infernal plot, infernally 
executed. It only became more formidable through despair, and 
now both of the Bourbons, — the king of Navarre as well as the prince 
of Conde, were enlisted in the Protestant cause. It was found ne- 
cessary again to grant them liberty of conscience. Charles died 
soon after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, at the age of twenty- 
four years. 

12. The successor of Charles IX., was Henry III., duke 
of Anjou, who had just been elected king of Poland, 1574 
He was a weak and worthless prince, joining to the utmost 
depravity of manners, the external observances of the lowest 
guperstition. He became the scorn of his subjects, and the 
dupe of the contending factions. It was in his reign, that 
the Catholics, incensed on account of the privileges conferred 
on the Huguenots, formed the famous league for the purpose 
of extirpatmg them, having the duke of Guise at its head. 
§ This league was nominally for the defence of the state and its 



ENGLAND. 195 

religion, but in reality, besides the extirpation of the Protestant faith, 
it had ill view the usurpation of all the powers of government. The 
king, with the weakest policy, united himself to this league, and 
thus became the avowed enemy of a large portion of his subjects. 
But in carrying on his military operations against the Protestants, 
he found himself thwarted at every step, by the duke of Guise and 
the Cardinal of Lorraine. To dispel the fears which he entertained 
from these men, he put them to death, by the hands of assassins. Af- 
ter a reign of fifteen years, the king himself was assassinated, 1589, 
by a fanatic monk. 

13. On the death of Henry III., who died without children, 
tile sceptre of France passed to the house of Bourbon, repre- 
sented at this time by Henry III., of Navarre. As king of 
France, he is known by the name of Henry IV., afterwards 
surnamed the Great. 

As his reign extends into the next period, the following 
particulars only, will be mentioned at present. He had been 
educated in the reformed religion by his mother, who avowed 
herself its protector. At the age of sixteen, he had been de- 
clared head of the party of the Huguenots. When invited 
to Paris at the peace of 1572, to marry the sister of Charles 
IX., he narrowly escaped from the massacre of St. Bartho- 
lomew, but remained three years a prisoner. Although his 
first military enterprises were unsuccessful, yet, when on the 
death of Charles, he again took the field against the army of 
the league, he defeated it in the battle of Coutras, 1587, and 
still more signally in that of Argues, 1589. After the death 
of Henry III., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry, against 
the army of the League, then commanded by the duke of 
Mayenne, who had proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon, king, 
under the title of Charles X. As a protestant, however, he was 
environed with difficulties ; a large portion of the people refused 
to submit to him ; and influenced by the earnest entreaties 
of the duke of Sully, as well as by views of policy, he re- 
nounced protestantism, and became a catholic, 1594. In 
1598, the duke of Mayenne submitted to Henry, and the 
whole kuigdom acknowledged him as its sovereign. 

ENGLAND. 

Branch of York. House of Tudor. 

14. Henry VI., had been on the throne of England since 
the year 1 422 ; but the wars which now commenced between 



196 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

his house and that of York, rendered his situation most in- 
secure, and, at length, hurled him from his throne. Justice 
was on the side of Richard, duke of York, as he was a de- 
scendant from the second son of Edward III., while Henry was 
a descendant from Edward's third son. The whole nation 
took the side of one or the other, and each party was distin- 
guished by a particular symbol. That of the Lancastrians 
was the red rose, and that of the Yorkites the white rose. 
Hence, this contention was known by the name of the 
"quarrel of the two roses." Hostilities commenced in 1455. 

§ The principal battles which were fought, previous to the acces- 
sion of Edward IV., were, that of St. Albans, in which Henry was 
defeated and taken prisoner, and Richard assumed the title of Pro- 
tector — that which was fought on Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, and 
which terminated in favour of Richard — that of Northampton, in 
which Henry was defeated and again taken prisoner, by the Earl oC, 
Warwick — and that of Wakefield, in whicU Henry's queen, Marga- 
ret of Anjou, gained a complete victory over Richard, who, together 
with his second son, was slain. 

Upon the death of the duke of York, the earl of Warwick, 
known by the name of King Maker, from the conspicuous part he 
bore in the contentions of the times, took command of the forces 
belonging to that party. 

15. Upon the death of Richard, the young duke of York, 
his son and successor, entered London at the head of a nu- 
merous army, amidst the greetings of the citizens, and as- 
sumed the powers of government. He did not, however, 
fully consider himself as king, until he had obtained, (1461,) 
at Towton, a signal victory over the adherents of Henry, of 
whom 36,000 were killed. His title was that of Edward IV. 
After various turns of foitune, in which he was once deposed, 
and Henry re-instated on the throne, he finally triumphed 
over the Lancastrians, in the desperate battle of Tewkes- 
bury, in which Margaret, and her son, the Prince of Wales, 
were taken prisoners. The latter was assassinated, and 
king Henry, Avho had been confined in the tower, was found 
»lead a few days afterwards. Margaret, whose ambition had 
kindled the desolating war, was punished only with imprison- 
ment. She was afterwards ransomed by the king of France, 
ind died in that country. 

§ It is said that the young prince, when brought before the king, 
and asked in an insulting tone, by the latter, how he dared to invade 
nis dominion, replied, with a spirit congenial to his high birih, that 
he came thither to claim his just inheritance. The ungenerous Ed- 



ENGLAND. 197 

ward, indignant at his answer, and insensible to pity, struck him on 
the face with his gauntlet ; and the dukes of Clarence and Glouces- 
ter, with others, taking the blow as a signal for further violence, 
hurried the prince into the next apartment, and there dispatched 
him with their daggers. 

It is said also, and generally believed, that Richard, duke of 
Gloucester, killed king Henry with his own hands. 

When Edward was secured on the throne, his spirit sunk 
in indolence and pleasure. The energies of his reign seem 
to have terminated with the civil wars, unless we except his 
acts of detestable tyranny. He put to death, on the most 
frivolous pretence, his brother Clarence ; and preparing to 
gratify his subjects, by a war wnth France, he died sud- 
denly, in the forty-second year of his age, poisoned, as was 
suspected, by his brother Richard, duke of Gloucester. 

§ The only favour which the king granted his brother, Clarence, 
after his condemnation, was, to leave him the choice of his death. 
The duke chose to be drowned in a butt of Malmsey — a whimsical 
choice, which implies that he had an extraordinary predilection for 
that liquor. 

16. Edward V., a minor, succeeded his father, 1483, under 
the protection of his uncle, the duke of Gloucester. A few 
days afterwards, the duke of Gloucester caused himself to be 
proclaimed, under the title of Richard III. The young king 
and his brother having been removed to the tower by Rich- 
ard's order, under pretence of guarding them, disappeared 
about that time. The diabohcal Richard, had inhumanly 
deprived them of Ufe. 

§ Richard possessed a fierce and savage nature, and in making his 
way to the throne, had recourse to the most perfidious and cruel 
acts. Endeavouring to gain the assistance of lord Hastings, and 
finding that nobleman inflexibly favourable to the children of Ed- 
ward, he accused him of treason, and ordered him to be decapita- 
ted, without even the appearance of legal forms. 

The murder of the two young princes, was as deep a tragedy as 
any recorded in English history. Richard gave orders to Sir Ro- 
bert Brakenbury, constable of the tower, to put his nephews to 
death ; but this gentleman, who had sentiments of honour, refused 
to stain his hands with the infamous deed. The tyrant then en- 
gaged Sir James Tyrrel, who, choosing three associates, like him- 
self, came in the night time to the door of the chamber, where the 
princes were lodged, and sending in the assassins, he bade them ex- 
ecute their commission, while he himself staid without. They 
found the unoffending young princes in bed, and fallen into a sweet 
and profound sleep. After suffocating them with the bolster and 
pillows, they showed their naked bodies to Tyrrel, who ordered 

17* 



198 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

them to be biiried at the foot of the stairs, deep in the ground, under 
a heap of stones. These circumstances were all confessed by the 
bloody actors, in the following reign. In the reign of Charles 11^ 
the bones of two persons were found in the place indicated, which 
exactly corresponded, by their sizes, to Edward V., and his brother ; 
and being judged the undoubted remains of these unhappy prmces, 
were deposited in Westminster Abbey. 

17. The earl of Riclimond, the only survivmg heir of the 
liouse of Lancaster, became tlie instrument, under divine 
Providence, of avenging the awful crimes of Richard. As- 
sisted by the French ku]"-, lie lauded in England, and revived 
the spirits of a party almost extinguished in the kingdom. 
He gave battle to Richard, 1485, in the field of Bos worth, 
and entirely defeated the army of the usurper, who was slain 
while fighting with the most desperate courage. This battle 
terminated the terrible contest between the houses of York 
and Lancaster — a contest which lasted thirt}^ years, and 
in which twelve sanguinary pitclied battles were fought, and 
100,000 brave men, including eiglity princes of the blood, 
perished on the field, or by the hand of the executioner. 

§ The person of Ricliard was as deformed as his character was de- 
testable. He was small of stature, hump-backed, ugly in Ids fea- 
tures, and had his left arm withered. This in(irmity, wliich luul 
attended him from his birth, he pretended, on a certain occasion 
when he wished to confound lord Hastings, was the effect of .Jane 
Shore's incantations, knowing that this nobleman had engaged in 
an intrigue with that lady. 

18. The crown which Richard wore in the engagement 
that proved fatal to liis hfe, was innnediately placed on the 
head of the concpieror. The earl of Richmond assumed the 
title of Henry YIL, Aug. 22, 1485. By marrying a daugh- 
ter of Edward TV., he united the rights of the two houses of 
York and Lancaster. He was a descendant from Edmund 
Tudor, and first king of the house of Tudor. 

Henry was a prudent and politic prince, but unhappily 
prejudiced against the adherents of the house of York. A 
degree of discontent was thus engendered, which tended to 
jeopardise his government. The general tranqiiilhty of his 
reign w^as, on this account, occasionally disturbed by plots 
and conspiracies — two of which ^\'ere rather singular, con- 
sisting in attempts to counterfeit the persons of the heirs of 
York, and to enforce their claims to tlie crown. 
§ The name of one of these impostors was Lambert Simnel, the 



ENGLAND. 199 

son of a baker, who counterfeited the person of the earl of War- 
wick, son of the late duke of Clarence. The name of the other 
was Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, who personated 
the duke of York, who had been smothered in the tower. They 
were supported by men of distinction in the nation, and gave Henry 
great trouble, but were finally subdued and taken. Simnel was 
spared and made a scullion in the king's kitchen. Warbeck expia- 
ted his crime on the scaftbld. 

The aversion of Henry to the house of York, shewed itself even 
in his treatment of his wife. Though in the highest degree virtu- 
ous, amiable, and obsequious, she never met with a proper return of 
aifection, or even of complaisance, from her husband ; and the 
malignant ideas of faction, in his sullen mind, prevailed over all the 
sentiments of conjugal endearment. 

Henry was by nature a despot ; and indeed the principles 
of despotism were congenial to all the sovereigns of the 
Tudor race. Yet his sagacity led him generally to pacific 
coun.sels. Though he was by no means a popular prince, 
he Avas useful to the nation, having enacted many wise laws, 
promoted industry, encouraged commerce, patronized the arts 
of civilized life, and curbed and softened the spirit of a proud 
and rude aristocracy. His policy gave a death blow to the 
Feudal system. The greatest stain in this prince's character 
was his avarice, which, in the latter part of his reign, prompt- 
ed to the most oppressive exactions. 

§ He is said to have left at his death, in ready money, a sum equal 
to £ 10,000,000 at present. 

19. Henry YHI. succeeded his father in the eighteenth 
year of his age, 1509. He came to the throne with flatter- 
ing prospects, considered whether in respect to the improved 
and trant|uil state of the kingdom, the affection and high 
expectation of his people, or his own supposed good qualities. 
§ Tlie succession was well established, the contending titles of 
York and Lancaster were fnlly united in him, the treasury was well 
filled, and peace and prosperity were universally enjoyed. The 
young prince's person was beautiful, his manners elegant, his dis- 
position frank, his mind highly cultivated for the times, and his 
native talents commanding. 

The nation, however, was greatly disappointed in its young 
prince. He soon shewed himself an unprincipled tyrant ; 
and ' both friends and foes felt, at times, the effects of his 
caprice and cruelty. His ministers w^ere talented men, but 
he took pleasure in abusing them. Only archbishop Cran- 
mer continued to be an object of favour to the last. Cardinal 



200 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. 

Wolsey, in whom he placed unbounded confidence for a time, 
was finally discarded. Wolsey, more than any one else, by 
ministering to the pleasures and ambition of the king, shaped 
his destiny and the fortunes of the people. 

§ This celebrated man was the son of a butcher at Ipswich ; but 
having received a learned education, and being endowed with an ex- 
cellent capacity, he was taken into the service of the king, and by 
degrees rose into distinction, till he became the prime minister of 
his sovereign. Clergyman as he was, he countenanced the king in 
all his light sports, gaiety, and sensual indulgences, a quality in the 
companion, which contributed to the influence and elevation of the 
courtier. 

20. In the early part of his reign, the counsels of Wolsey 
agreeing with the natural temper of Henry, prompted him to 
make war against Louis XII. of France. He invaded the 
country, and met with success so far as he went, having 
gained the Battle of the Spurs ; (because the French on the 
occasion made more use of their spurs than their svrords ;) 
but he failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking 
Tournay, returned to England. 

About tlie same time the Scots, who had made an incur- 
sion into England, were defeated by Henry's general, the 
earl of Surrey, at Flodden Field, where James IV., and a 
great part of his nobility, were slain. Henry, hovrever, did 
not follow up his advantage, but generously granted a peace 
to Scotland. 

Henry also took a part in the long and obstinate wars 
which were waged between Francis I. and Charles V.^ ag 
before detailed. His foreign alliances cost him the expendi- 
ture of immense treasures to no purpose, as he was, by turns, 
the dupe of both parties. 

The niost important events in Henry's reign, are connected 
with his matrimonial alliances. Out of these, as a conse- 
quence, arose the ever-memorable Reformation in England. 
Henry was opposed by the pope in an affair so interesting to 
his passions, and therefore the pope was opposed hy him^ 
and at length lost his influence in the kingdom. In this 
great religious change, it is evident Henry had no good in- 
tentions, but sought tlie gratification of his own unhallowed 
appetites. He had previously declared himself the champion 
of the Romish church, and even w^ritten a book agaiiis*. 



ENGLAND. 201 

Luther. >Hence was conferred on him, by the pope, the title 
of " Defender of the Faith." 

§ Henry was married to Catharine of Arragon, his brother's 
widow, but having fahen in love with the beantiful Anne Boleyn, he 
apphed to the pope for a divorce. This, hoAvever, was denied liim. 
But Henry was not to be frustrated in his intentions. The opinion 
of the universities was favourable to him, and Anne was soon crown- 
ed queen. 

The pope now was forced to pay the price of his conscientious- 
ness or obstinacy. His authority, from tliat time, was abolished in 
England ; the annual tribute was no longer paid to him ; the dissolu- 
tion of the monasteries was ordered ; and the clergy, as well as all 
others, were obliged to acknowledge the king as head of t!ie clun'ch ; 
and the want of obedience, was punishable with banishment or 
death. On this account, Sir Thomas More, and the bishop of Ro- 
chester, among others, perished by the hand of the executioner. 
Cardinal A^^olsey also, was conceived to be in the way of the king's 
wishes on the subject of his marriage, and after being deprived of 
his immense power and possessions, was arrested for high treason. 
He, however, died of a broken heart soon afterwards, uttering in the 
anguish of his soul, the never to be forgotten words, " Had I but 
served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not 
have forsaken me in my gray hairs." 

Anne Boleyn, in less than three years, was condemned and be- 
headed. After her, he married four wives in succession ; the first 
dying in child-birth ; the next ha^'iug been divorced, because he 
found her not so beautiful as had been represented ; and the third 
having been executed for adultery. The fourth survived him. 

The tyrant died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, bequeathing his 
ci'own, first to Edward, then to Mary, and lastly to Elizabeth. 

20. Edward VI., Henry's son, by Jane Seymour, ascended 
the throne in 1547, in his tenth year. At first, the earl of 
Hertford was regent ; afterwards, the duke of Somerset, who 
was decidedly friendly to the reformation. Edward was a 
prince of great promise and many virtues; but, to the deep 
regret of the English nation, he died in the sixteenth year 
of his age. 

During his reign, the reformation made great progress, 
through the zeal of Cranmer ; yet a large body of the people 
adhered to popery. The triumphs of the new religion were 
not, however, effected without public disturbances, and some 
sanguinary executions took place on account of religion. 

A project Avas undertaken of uniting Ens^land and Scot- 
land, by a marriage between Edward and IMary Stuart, the 
young queen of the Scots. It, however, failed, and a battle 



202 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

ensued, near Musselburgh, in which 10,000 of the Scots were 
slain. 

§ So different in disposition was Edward from his father, that it is 
said he always wept, when he signed an order for an execution 
against any of his subjects. Edward's benevolent turn of mind is 
evidenced by his charitable endowments, as Bridewell, St. Thomas's 
Hospital, and several schools, which still exist and flourish. 

21. Mary, Edward's sister, next ascended the throne, in 
1553. History has assigned to her the unenviable title of 
" bloody," from the persecutions and martyrdoms suffered by 
the protestants, in her reign. Her disposition was morose, 
tyrannical, and cruel, in tiie highest degree. Bent upon the 
restoration of the catholic religion, she hesitated at no mea- 
sures, however unjust, which were calculated to effect the 
object. 

§ To force and violence, she naturally resorted. Some of the most 
eminent reformers, as Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, Ferrer, 
and Rogers, she consigned to the flames. In consequence, however, 
of these cruelties, a powerful prejudice was excited against the 
catholics. Their cause sunk, and that of the protestants rose ; and 
the reformation was, in reality, extended, by the means employed 
for its extinction. 

The beginning of Mary's reign, was stained with the 
blood of the celebrated Lady Jane Grey, grand daughter to a 
sister of Henry VIII. She more happily suppressed, soon 
after, an insurrection under Wyat. 

Her husband was Philip IL, of Spain; but, by the articles 
of marriage, she, or rather her parliament, has the merit of 
making provision for the independence and glory of the Eng- 
hsh crown. It was agreed that the administration should be 
solely in the queen, and, on certain conditions, her issue 
should inherit the dominions of Philip. 

The loss of Calais, which the English possessed 210 
years, together with the knowledge that she w^as hated, both 
by her husband and her subjects, caused her to die of grief 
and vexation of heart, in the forty-third year of her age. 

§ Jane Grey, whose fate was so tragical, was designed by Ed- 
ward to be his successor. Her title, however, was quite defective ; 
and the law, assigning the crown to her, which Edward caused to 
be passed, was unconstitutional. Lord Guilford Dudley, son of the 
duke of Northumberland, had lately married her; and both the fa- 
ther and son strongly solicited her to accept of the perilous bequest 
of Edward. She reluctantly consented, and, by their intrigues, was 
proclaimed queen. Her youth and innocence might have excused 



ENGLAND. 203 

her ; but she was soon arrested, and, together with her husband, was 
condemned and executed. 

On the day of her execution, her husband desired permission to 
see her ; but she refused her consent, informing him by message, 
that the tenderness of tiieir parting would overcome the fortitude of 
both, and too much unbend their minds from a greater concern. 
She adverted also to other topics of a consolatory kind. Her hus- 
band was first brought to the block, before her eyes ; but. undaun- 
ted at such a sight, she addressed the spectators, in a most affecting 
speech, and, vv^ith a serene countenance, immediately submitted her 
own neck to the fatal axe. 

Lady Jane Grey was an accomplished scholar, a devout christian, 
and the fairest ornament of her sex. Aschem tells us, that she wrote 
in Latin, with great strength of sentiment ; and we are informed 
by her contemporary. Sir Thomas Chaloner, that she was well versed 
in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian. Fuller adds, that 
she had "the innocency of childhood, the beauty of youth, the so- 
lidity of middle, the gravity of old age, and all at eighteen ; the birth 
of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, yet the 
death of a malefactor, for her parent's offences." 

22. Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, on the death of 
her sister Mary, 1558. This was a joyful event to the Eng- 
lish people. The prudence which, as a subject, she had dis- 
played during the sanguinary reign of her sister, gave pro- 
mise of excellence in the sovereign. 

§ It required all the sagacity and caution of Elizabeth, to elude the 
effects of the violent jealousy which the queen, her sister, enter- 
tained against her. When questioned respecting the real presence, 
the net for catching protestants, she replied : 

" Christ was the word that spake it, 
He took the bread and brake it, 
And what the word did make it, 
That I believe and take it." 

That which was thus promised, was, in a great measure, 
fulfilled. By her wise counsels, the protestant religion was 
fostered; the church of England received its present form; 
and agriculture, commerce, arts, and Uterature, attained to an 
elevation unknown in England before. Her intrepid mind, 
and the measures of the government, so sagaciously and 
firmly pursued, rendered her the most respected and power- 
ful sovereign in Europe. She colonized a large portion of 
North America, supported the infant republic of Holland 
against its tyrannical enemy, humbled the pride of Spain, in 
the defeat of its boasted armada, and assisted Henry IV. in 
the recovery of his Idngdom. She sought the true interests 



204 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

and o-loiy of her subjects, so far as concerned their temporal 
prosperity, or their external religious observances. 

Yet it must be acknowledged, that she compassed her objects, 
often, by very questionable means. She was stern, unyield- 
ing, luirelenting, despotic, in her maxims of government, 
and was guilty, at times, of the basest acts of cruelty and 
liypocrisy. Her treatment of her cousin, Mary, queen of 
Scots, whom she caused to he beheaded, on the Ijare suspi- 
cion of a conspiracy, has loaded her memory with a degree 
of reproach, wliich the splendour of her reign, in other re- 
spects, can never obliterate. And her conduct towards her 
favourites, particularly tlte earl of Essex, is marked with sin- 
gular caprice, if not injustice. 

§ Tl te invincible Armada, so called, was a fleet which Spain fitted 
out for the invasion of England, on account of the interference of the 
latter power in the affairs of the Nctherhnids. It consisted of 150 
ships of war, carrying 27,000 men, and 3000 cannon— the largest 
naval armament whicli Europe had ever seen. The Enghsh fleet of 
108 ships, commanded by Howard, Drake, and others, met tlie ar- 
mada as it entered tiie Enghsh channel, attacked it in the night, and 
burnt and destroyed a great part of tlie squadron. A storm which 
drove the remainder of the Spanish ships on the coast of Zealand, 
completed their discomfiture, and only fifty shattered vessels, witli 
6000 men, retm-ned to Spain. 

The story of the beautiful and unfortunate Mary, will be briefly 
told in what follows. She was a daugliter of James V., kijig of Scot- 
land, and great-grand-daughter of Henry VII. of England, and next 
heir to the English crown. She succeeded her father, eight days af- 
ter her birth. Slie was educated in France, as a catholic, and, in 
early life, married the Dauphin, afterwards Francis II. Influenced 
by her maternal uncles, the Guises, she consented to take the title ot 
queen of England — an injudicious measure, equally calculated to 
wound her own peace, and excite Elizabeth's resentment. 

After her return to Scotland, on tlie death of Francis, she gave • 
her hand to her cousin Henry Stuart, (lord Darnley.) But the king, 
her husband, being excluded from any share in the government, by 
the advice (as he suspected) of Rizzio, an Italian musician, her 
secretary and favourite, he, by the assistance of some of the princi- 
pal nobility, suddenly surprised them when at supper together, and 
eflfected the death of Rizzio, in tlie queen's presence. 

The next year, the king was blown up with gunpowder, in a pri- 
vate house, to which he had retired with a few friends. The earl of 
Boihwell, the new favourite of Mary, is, not without reason, sup- 
posed to have been the contriver of this murder. He was, however, 
acquitted by the nobles of his and Mary's party ; and, in about two 
months after, the imprudent princess condescended to marry liim. 

This shameful conduct, occasioned the revolt of the chief nobility; 



ENGLAND. 205 

and her best subjects, by whom she was taken prisoner, compelled 
ner to resign the crown, and her son, James VI., was called to the 
sovereignty. The queen, soon after, escaped from prison, and raised 
an army to oppose the regent, Murray, who was determined on her 
destruction, and whom she had frequently condemned, and as fre- 
quently pardoned. She was, however, defeated, and fled to Eng- 
land, in 1568, where she expected, from the repeated declarations of 
Elizabeth, protection and security. 

Elizabeth, secretly delighted to find a hated rival in her power 
proved unfaithful to her professions, and detained the unhappy 
fugitive a prisoner, for eighteen years. She first, however, under 
pretence of doing justice to Mary, had the cause of the latter en 
quired into, at a conference at York. But though nothing was 
proved against her, Elizabeth saw fit to detain her in close con- 
finement. 

The Scottish queen, during her tedious and merciless confinement, 
naturally desired, and her friends for her, a release. For a plot to 
eflfect this object, devised by her friends, and detected, she was held 
responsible ; and though an independent sovereign, was tried by a 
foreign power. Presumed, only, to be guilty, she was condemned, 
and soon after barbarously beheaded, in Fotheringay castle, in the 
forty-fifth year of her age, and in the nineteenth of her captivity. 

Historians tell us, that when Mary was informed of the order for 
her execution, she was surprised, but betrayed no symptoms of fear. 
The night before her execution, she called in all her servants, and 
bade them a solemn farewell. Next morning she dressed herself in 
a rich habit of silk and velvet, and declared her resolution to die in 
the faith in which she had been educated. It was on the 8th of 
Feb. 1587, when she was brought to the block, and in tliat awful 
conjuncture, displayed a fortitude and decency, which would have 
honoured a matron of Rome ; and to the moment of her death, 
united the majesty of a queen with the meekness of a martyr. 

The bishop of Lincoln, in a prayer on the occasion of her burial, 
used the following words— "It is a charitable saying of father 
Luther, ' Many one liveth a Papi&t and dielh a Protestant:' only this 
I have been informed, that she took her death patiently, and recom- 
mended herself wholly to Jesus Christ.-' 

Mary, besides her eminent beauty, which was celebrated through- 
out Europe, possessed the highest mental accomplishments. She 
read and understood several languages, wrote poetry, and cultivated 
a knowledge of music. Her misfortunes were great; and though 
many of them were brought upon her by her indiscretions, if not 
crimes, the severity of her lot has called forth general commisera- 
tion. 

In the early part of Elizabeth's reign, the earl of Leicester was 
her prmcipal favourite ; but after his death, she became attached to 
the earl of Essex, as her minister; and indeed there was, on the part 
of the queen, though quite advanced in life, much of the appearance 
of a more tender passion. She seems, however, unalterably to have 
kept her resolution " to live and die a maiden queen." She ^at 

18 



206 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

pleased with courtship, but kept aloof from matrimony. Essex was 
a young nobleman of singular accomplishments, talents, and spirit. 

The queen and Essex had many quarrels and reconciliations. In 
one instance, in consequence of some affront which he offered hen, 
she angrily gave him a box on the ear ; upon which Essex clapped 
his hand on his sword, swearing he would not bear such usage, were 
it from Henry VIII. ; and immediately withdrew from court. His 
indiscretion, however, was soon pardoned. He was at length teased 
by her capricious humour into a crime, which she could not pardon. 
He had severely reflected on her person, (for though nearly in her 
seventieth year, she wished to be thought a beauty.) and connected 
this with some suspicious movements of a treasonable nature. He 
was soon arraigned, convicted, and brought to the block. 

From this period her mind began to be depressed. Tlie cau^ 
doubtless was, the revival of her tenderness for Essex. While under 
sentence of death, he sent by the countess of Nottingham, to Eliza- 
beth, a ring which she had given him as a pledge of her affection, 
and of the confidence he might feel, in whatever disgrace he miglit 
be, that the sight of it would secure her favourable interposition. 
The countess, at the instigation of her husband, the mortal enemy 
of Essex, neglected to deliver it ; and Wjien on her beath-bed, sent 
for the queen, to inform her of the fact. Elizabeth, bursting into a 
frantic passion, shook the dyiu'^; countess in her bed, and exclaimed, 
" God may pardon you, but I never can." 

From that moment the queen fell into the profoundest melancholy ; 
refused both food and medicine, and throwing herself on the floor, 
remained in that state several days and nights, till life became 
extinct. 

Essex, it appears, was much thought of in his day. We find in 
an ancient account of him, the following quaint and hyperbolic 
epitaph : 

" Here sleeps great Essex, dearling of manldnde, 
Faire honour's lampe, foule envie's prey, Arte'sfame 

Nature's pride, Virtue's buhvarke, lure of minde, 
Wisdome's flower. Valour's tower, Fortune's shame, 

England's sunne, Belgia's light, France's star, Spaine's thunder, 

Lysbone's lightning, Ireland's clowde, the whole world's wonder." 

23. Little needs be added respecting the character of 
EUzabeth. In her private Hfe, she was less commendable 
than in her public conduct. She possessed few qualities of 
tlie heart wdiich we love to see in all, especially in woman. 
The rivalship of beauty, the desire of admiration, the jea- 
lousy of love, the meanness of insincerity, and the saUies of 
anger, sullied her character, and showed that she was still a 
woman, but without the amiability of her sex. The attrir 
butes of her intellect, however, merit the highest encomium, 
and her pubUc conduct was that of a queen. We give her 



GERMANY. 207 

full credit for vigour, firmness, penetration, and address — ^for 
heroism without rashness, for frugality without avarice, for 
activity without the turbulence of ambition. Her proficiency 
in learning was great, and she possessed extraordinary talents 
for government. The security and defence of the English 
people, were never placed in abler hands. 

GERMANY. 

24. At the commencement of the present period, Germany 
was under the sway of Frederick IV. He erected Austria 
into an Archduchy, and rendered liis family the most power- 
ful in Germany, by marrying his son Maximilian, to Mary, 
heiress of Burgundy and the Netherlands. He reigned 
fifty-three years. 

25. Maximilian I., his son, succeeded him, 1493. He 
possessed most of the qualities that signalize a great prince. 
He freed Germany from the disorders of the feudal system, 
and estabhshed peace among its separate sovereignties. 

§ He was wanting in decision of mind, which seemed lo be his 
only failing as a prince ; in consequence of which, some of his im- 
portant projects miscarried. His memory was so tenacious, that he 
never forgot the names of persons he had once seen, or heard men- 
tioned. 

26. His grandson, Charles V., succeeded him in the empire, 
1519, having carried the election in preference to Francis I., 
of France. Some particulars respecting this distinguished 
prince, were given in the history of that country. A few 
others will be added. 

§ Charles was the eldest son of Philip, son of Maximilian, and of 
Jane, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. He succeeded to thfi 
throne of Spain, in 1516. 

The first act of his administration, was to appoint an im- 
perial diet, with a view to check the progress of Luther's 
opinions, which were represented as inimical to the peace of 
Germany. About this time, also, Germany was divided into 
ten circles. In 1521, commenced the celebrated w^ar between 
Charles and Francis, in which Charles obtained manifest ad- 
vantage. In 1527, he took Rome, which was plundered by 
the Germans during nine months. A few years afterwards, 
Charles captured Tunis, and liberated twenty-two thousand 
Christian slaves. 



208 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

But the most extraordinary event pertaining to this sove- 
reign, was the voluntary rehnquishment of his kingly and 
imperial authority. He resigned, first the Netherlands and 
the kingdom of Spain, to his son Philip, in 1556, and after- 
wards the empire, in favour of his brother Ferdinand. The 
remainder of his life he spent in a monastery. An occur- 
rence of this kind, is rare in the history of princes, who are 
generally more fond of authority, the longer they have en- 
joyed it. 

§ Charles was the most powerful sovereign of Europe, his sway 
extending over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and a part of Italy. 
He was generally successful in war, though (if such was his aim) 
universal empire was beyond his reach. He never could bring his 
dominions into a well connected body. His enemies were nume- 
rous and powerful, and gave him perpetual annoyance. His cares 
and difficulties increased as he advanced in life, and finding his health 
also decline, he determined torehnquish the burdens of government. 

Accordingly, he recalled his son Philip, on whom, at his recent 
marriage with Mary, queen of England, he had bestowed the king- 
doms of Naples and Sicily, and also the duchy of Milan. Having 
assembled the states of the Low-Countries, at Brussels, he explained 
the reasons of his resignation, recapitulated the most important ac- 
tions of his life, and transferred the sovereign authority to Philip, 
with such unaffected magnanimity and paternal affection, that the 
whole audience melted into tears. A few weeks after this solemni- 
ty, Charles conferred all his royalties and signiories, both in Europe 
and America, upon his son ; reserving nothing to himself, but a pen- 
sion of 100,000 crowns, to be deducted from the revenue of Spain. 

After making some ineffectual attempts to secure the German 
princes in the interests of Philip, Charles made a formal resignation 
of the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and immediately set out for 
Spain, with a chosen retinue. Previously to his arrival in that coun- 
try, a small building had been annexed to the monastery of St. Just, 
consisting of six rooms, four of them in the form of friar's cells, with 
naked walls, and the other two hung with brown cloth, and furnish- 
ed in the most simple manner. Thither Charles retired, with only 
twelve domestics ; and there, after a peaceful solitude of about two 
years, he resigned his breath, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. 

27. The successors of Charles in the empire, during the 
remainder of this period, were, after Ferdinand I., his son 
Maximilian II., and Rhodolph II. These princes generally 
made use of pacifiic expedients, in the disputes carried on be- 
tween the Protestants and the Catholics. 

§ Ferdinand and Maximilian, are said to have been most excellent 
princes. From the latter, no one ever heard a harsh expression. 
So economical were his arrangements, that to every act of his life 
its appropriate hour was allotted. The empire flourished in a pecu- 



GERMANY. 209 

liar manner under his administration. Rhodolph, though at war 
with the Turks, almost the whole of his reign, was more occupied 
with tournaments, and the study of mechanics, chemistry, and as- 
tronomy, than with the affairs of state. He frequently spent whole 
days at the shops of clockmakers, turners, &c., so eager was his de- 
sire for that species of knowledge. 

28. The reformation in religion, by which the present pe- 
riod is so peculiarly distinguished, is the most important event 
in the history of Germany. It commenced in that country, 
whence it spread rapidly through several other European na- 
tions. It was connected with a new era in the religious his- 
tory of the world. By it, Papacy received a wound, from 
which it can never recover. The date of this event, is 1517. 

Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, was the first instrument 
employed by an overruhng Providence, in accomplishing this 
great moral revolution. His attention was excited to the 
corruption and abuses of the Catholic religion, by the sale ot 
indulgencies, at that time instituted throughout all the Chris- 
tian kingdoms of Europe. Leo X., in order to raise money 
for the completion of his magnificent buildings at Rome, had 
published general indulgences ; that is, remittances from the 
pains of purgatory : and the elector of Mentz, authorised the 
Dominicans to receive the money, and preach up the merits 
of such a contribution. 

But the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all 
sins, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, gave great 
offence to many rehgious persons, and induced Luther, who 
was then a professor of divinity at Wittemberg, to expose the 
absurdity of such odious traffic. His indignation was aroused ; 
and indeed, the enormity of these doings, opened his eyes to 
tlie iniquity of the whole system. 

His anathemas found many willing hearers, particularly in 
the electorate of Saxony, though Tetzel, the papal agent, 
vigorously combatted him. Luther, however, by degrees ac- 
quired great popularity, and his influence brought other di- 
vines into the controversy. Persecution was now resorted to 
by the pope and his emissaries, but this only increased his 
zeal and indignation as a preacher. Luther was soon cited 
by the pope, to appear at Rome, within sixty days. Prince 
Frederick, elector of Saxony, however, requested that the re- 
former might plead his cause in Germany ; and Luther re- 
paired, under the protection of a safe conduct, to the imperial 

18* 



210 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

diet, convoked by Charles at Augsburg, before cardinal Caje- 
tan ; but instead of making any recantation, he boldly avow- 
ed his resolution of defending his doctrines, though all the 
terrors of the church should be denounced against him. As 
the pope's legate, however, proceeded to menaces, Luther re- 
tired privately from Augsburg, having first complained, by 
letter, to the pope, of the harsh treatment he had received from 
Cajetan. 

Having arrived safely into Saxony, he found the mass there 
universally abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents 
shut up. The spirit which had been thus kindled, spread 
next into Switzerland, where it produced the most important 
changes. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, soon embraced 
the Lutheran tenets ; and the protestants, as they were all 
called who embraced the reformed rehgion, multiplied in the 
Netherlands, France, and England, as well as in Germany. 
The quarrel which Henry VIII., who was no protestant him 
self, had with the pope, was the means of advancing the re- 
formation in England, and of subverting the ancient faith. 
The cruel persecutions of which the papists were guilty, 
greatly aided the good cause, in the end. 

SPAIN. 

29. Spain had, for several ages, been held by the Moors, 
or Mahometans. This people, hov/ever, had lost one province 
after another, till towards the close of the fifteenth century, only 
Granada remained subject to their authority. Upon the acces- 
sion of Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1479, the crowns of Cas- 
tile and Arragon were happily united, and thus all the Chris- 
tian principaUties in Spain, found themselves under ons 
sceptre ; and, with the conquest of Granada, which the king 
and queen effected in 1492, Spain became one entire monar- 
chy. Ferdinand and Isabella were, in effect, two sovereign 
princes, though professedly united in marriage. 

The Moors suffered terribly in the siege of Granada, an4 
with the loss of their dominions, were, for the most part, 
obliged to retire into Africa. 

§ To Ferdinand and Isabella, the establishment of the terrible In- 
quisition, in Spain, is owing. Two thousand persons are said to have 
suffered death under Torquemada, the first inquisitor general. This 
iastance of intemperate and ferocious zeal, in the king and queen. 



SPAIN. 211 

may well be set off against the several good qualities, which it is al- 
lowed, they possessed. Their reign was signalized by the discove- 
ries made by the great Columbus. 

30. Jane, who became deranged, succeeded her mother 
Isabella, in Castile, with her husband, Philip of Austria. 
On the death of her father, Jane being unfit to reign, her 
son Charles I., afterwards Charles Y., w^as acknowledged 
sovereign of all Spain, 1516. His history has already been 
related. 

§ During Charles's reign, Mexico was conquered by Fernando 
Cortez, in 1519, and Peru by Pizarro in 1525. The Spanish do- 
minions were thus greatly extended. 

31. Philip XL, succeeded his father upon the abdication of 
tlie latter, in 1556. In his time, the balance of power in 
Europe, was sustained by Spain, France, England and Ger- 
many, all, at this time, highly flourishing and respectable, either 
from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. 
Philip was an acute and able politician, though his policy 
partook somewhat of selfish cunning. He was sovereign of 
Spain, the two Sicilies, Milan, and the Netherlands. He 
had likewise, for a few years, the resources of England at 
command, by his marriage with Mary, the English queen. 
His power Avas great, but his ambition was greater ; and 
though he met with occasional success, at the close of along 
and busy reign, he had accomplished but few of his nume- 
rous projects. 

§ Pope Paul IV., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alfi- 
ance with the king of France, to deprive the Spaniards of Milan and 
the Sicilies. Philip, with the aid of the English, defeated the French 
at St. Quintin, and hoped, from tliis signal victory, to force the 
allies into a peace. Another signal victory, however, was necessary, 
which Philip gained near Gravelines, the result of which was, that 
the French surrendered to Spain, no less than eighty-nine fortified 
towns, in the low countries, and in Italy. 

Phihp was an intolerant bigot in religion, and it was owing to his 
cruel attempts to enforce a uniformity of religious opinion in the 
Netherlands, tliat the latter broke away from his authority, as will 
be detailed below. 

HOLLAND. 

32. Holland became a repubUc by the union of Utrecht, 
in 1579. The states combined to defend their common 
Uberties, on account of the tyranny of their sovereign, Philip 
II. Seven of the seventeen provinces, constituting the Neth- 



212 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

erlands, came into the measure. The remaining ten pro- 
vinces had their charter renewed by Phihp, and did not be- 
come independent until in the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. 

§ Holland, is another appellation for the Seven United Provinces^ 
so called, from its chief province being of that name. The remain- 
ing ten are known by the name of Flanders. The duchy of Bur- 
gundy, composed of some of these provinces, was originally equal 
to any power in Europe. The whole of the Netherlands, except 
three states, were annexed to the German empire, by marriage, 1477. 
They were afterwards resigned to the king of Spain. 

In the early periods of their history, the Hollanders became sub- 
ject to the Franks, under whom, they were divided into small gov^ 
ernments, the heads of which were despotic, in their own dominions. 
Holland and the Netherlands, were united to Germany, under one 
of the grandsons of Charlemagne, but became independent in tliB 
tenth century. At length, in 1443, they were subject to the dukes 
of Burgundy. The next transfer of these states, was to Germany, 
Charles V. being heir to the house of Burgundy. 

They endured the rule of Charles, but the tyranny of his son 
Philip II., was not to be borne. The Reformation had made a con- 
siderable progress in the Netherlands. Philip, with a view to repress 
it, established the Inquisition, projected certain innovations, which 
created alarm and tumult, and sent an army under the duke of Alva, 
to enforce implicit submission. The consequence of these measures 
was, that many thousands of persons, and some of the highest dis- 
tinction, perished by the hands of the executioner. It is computed 
that 18,000 were the victims of the five years' administration ol 
Alva. 

William, the prince of Orange, on whom the government of seve- 
ral of the provinces had been conferred, and who was now, himself^ 
under the sentence of the Inquisition, raised an army on this occa^ 
sion, and undertook the deliverance of the states. Having reduced 
some of the most important garrisons, he was proclaimed Stadtholder 
of Holland and Zealand, in 1570. 

The whole seventeen provinces had equally suffered from the 
tyranny of Philip ; but only seven of them could agree to form a 
confederated republic. The influence of jealousy and competition, 
prevented the union of the whole. By the treaty which was formed, 
it was agreed that they should defend their liberties, as one united 
republic ; that they should jointly decide in the concerns of peace 
and war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain re^ 
ligious freedom. William was elected Stadtholder of the whole 
seven, a title which included the duties of a general, admiral, and 
magistrate. 

The effusion of blood, which had been great prior to this union, 
was not hereby much diminished. The crown of Spain, strained 
every nerve to recover those provinces. Philip, venting his indig- 
nation, by a proscription of the prince of Orange, and offering 25,000 



AMERICA. ' 213 

crowns for his head, compassed his reveng-e ; for this ilkistrious man 
was cut off by an assassin, 1584. By persevering courage, however, 
and assisted by queen Elizabeth of England, and Henry IV. of 
France, the Hollanders, at length, completely established their inde- 
pendence, and brought the Spanish monarch to acknowledge them 
as a free people. 

Maurice, the son of William, was elected Stadtholder, in the room 
of his father, and displayed the most consummate talents, as a states- 
man and warrior, having conducted the struggle to the issue alreadj 
related. 

AMERICA. 

33. The immense portion of the earth called America, 
was UDknown to Europe, Asia, and Africa, till the year 1492, 
when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a native 
of Genoa, in a voyage which he made from Spain, saihng- 
west, for the purpose of Tending a new continent, or at least 
, of arriving at India, in tins direction. He first met, not with 
the continent, but the islands in its vicinity. 

§ The discovery of the new world, was one of the greatest and hap- 
piest results of genius, that mankind have ever witnessed. The im- 
portance of the discovery cannot be easily overrated. An event so 
unlooked for, so unthought of, expanded the views, and waked up 
tlie energy of the human mind. It excited a spirit of enterprise, un- 
felt before. Its influence on commerce, and consequently wealth, 
was, from the beginning, great and decisive, by immensely increas- 
ing the articles of traffic. The mines of America furnished, also, a 
great abundance of the precious metals ; thus multiplying the amount 
of the circulating medium throughout the world. Colonization, and 
the arts of civilized life, have been advanced and extended, by means 
of this discovery ; the sphere of human enjoyment enlarged, and 
especially the blessings of the true religion, communicated to greater 
numbers of mankind. America has also given to the w^orld a new 
find bright example, both of civil and religious freedom ; the effects of 
which, are destined to be felt through all time, and, perhaps, among 
all nations. Some evils have, indeed, been incident to the discovery, 
but they are exceedingly outweighed by its propitious results, and 
will continue to be so, judging from the known principles of human 
nature, and from the dealings of divine providence. 

It has been believed by some, that America was not unknovni to 
the ancients. The theory has gained advocates, from a few pas- 
sages in the works of some of the writers of antiquity, and also from 
coincidences in the languages and customs of some of the nations of 
the old and new continent. But the theory has little ground for its 
support. Certainly, at the revival of letters in Europe, no traces of the 
knowledge of another continent existed ; and it was generally suppo- 
sed, that the Canaries formed the western boundaries of the world. 

To Columbus, an account of whom will appear in a biographical 



214 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. 

sketch, about to follow, mankind are indebted for the correction of 
this error, and the discovery of a new continent. From a long and 
close application to the study of geography, this great man had ob- 
tained a knowledge of the true figure of the earth, far beyond whal 
was common to the age in which he lived. Another continent, he 
conceived necessarily existed, to complete the balance of this terra- 
queous globe; but he erroneously supposed it to be connected with 
that of India. The truth of his speculations, he now ardently de- 
sired to prove, by experiment. In this, however, he met with great 
difficulty, and it was not until the expiration of several years, that his 
project was patronized by any prince or court in Europe. Queen 
Isabella, of Spain, has immortalized her name, by rendering the 
first effectual assistance to Columbus. 

One great motive which influenced Columbus and his patroness, 
aside from the hope of ascertaining the existence of anew continent, 
was to find a passage to China and the East Indies, by sea : or rather, 
the latter, may have been the sole motive, connecting the supposed 
new regions with the east of Asia. It had been long an object of 
study, to find such a passage, and thus avoid the inconvenience and 
expense of transporting the merchandise of India, across the land, 
from the Red Sea, to Alexandria, in Egypt. The passage round the 
Cape of Good Hope, was not then known, and the shortest route 
was supposed, by Columbus, to be by the west. It is to be remem- 
bered, that the maps of that period, represented the oriental countries 
of Asia, as stretching vastly farther to the east, than has since been 
proved to be the fact. Columbus was fitted, in every point of view, 
for his mighty and perilous undertaking. 

Never was success more complete, or a great idea more happily 
realized. With inconsiderable means, and an ill-appointed flotilla 
of three small vessels, victualled for twelve months, and having on 
board ninety men, he commenced his unpromising adventure. Leav- 
ing Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, he sailed directly for the 
Canaries, whence, having refitted his crazy ships, he kept a due 
western course, over an unknown ocean, not without a compass, but 
without a chart. His compass, however, occasioned perplexity. 
The variation of the magnetic needle from due north, was first ob- 
served, when he had sailed about 200 leagues from the Canaries, 
and so terrified his men, that they were scarcely restrained from 
mutiny. All his address and talents were now put in requisition. 
The phenomenon of the needle seemed portentous to himself, but 
his ingenuity devised a solution of it, which silenced the complaints 
of his crew. 

After this, he pursued his voyage, yet not without the frequent 
manifestation of anxiety and impatience, on the part of his crew. 
Thirty days had transpired since they had left the Canaries, and no 
land appearing, both officers and men joined in a revolt. Columbus 
■was forced partially to give way to their remonstrances, and pro- 
posed to return, after the expiration of three days, if they should 
find no land. Some indications of it had already begun to appear, 



AMERICA. 215 

and, on the 11th of October, the joyful sight was descried, first by 
Columbus himself. God was immediately praised, and the sailors 
were now as ardent in their expressions of repentance and admirar 
tion, as they had been, before, insolent and ungovernable. 

34. St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, was the island first 
discovered. Columbus afterwards touched at Cuba, and 
Hispaniola, (St. Domingo,) now Hayti. On the latter he left 
Bome of his men, to form a colony. His theory led him to 
call the regions he had discovered, by the name of West In- 
dies ; since he had reached India, or a portion of the globe 
which he supposed to be near it, by a western passage. 

Columbus returned to Spain in the following May, and soon 
set out, Vv^ith a much larger expedition, on a second voyage. 
In this he was so happy as to add many other islands to 
those already found. In a third voyage, he discovered Trini- 
dad, and the continent at the mOuth of the Oronoke, 1498. 

35. The fame of his discoveries, drew adventurers from all 
parts of Europe ; and, among others, Americus Vesputius, a 
Florentine, a man of science and genius, who, a few years 
afterwards, following the footsteps of Columbus, acquired tlie 
undeserved honour of giving his name to the new world. 

36. In 1497, one year before the main land of South 
America had been discovered by Columbus, John Cabot, a 
Venetian by birth, but at that time an inhabitant of England, 
proceeded on a voyage of discovery, under a commission from 
the British king, and found the continent of North America, 
Touching at various parts of the coast, he took possession of 
the country, in behalf of the crown of England. 

37. The Spaniards, after an interval of a few years, made 
settlements in the new world, and, impelled by a thirst of 
gold, committed horrible butcheries in several of the islands, 
and especially in Mexico and Peru, under Cortez, Pizarro, 
and Almagro. These brave adventurers, though base men, 
established the authority of Spain over countries which they 
depopulated by their avarice and cruelty. In the year J 500, 
the coast of Brazil was accidentally discovered by Alvarez de 
Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, in consequence of having 
been driven too far to the west, on a voyage round the Cape 
of Good Hope. Hence, the settlement and possession of that 
part of America, by the people of Portugal. 

§ Columbus, as we have seen, entertained the idea that the re- 
gion he had discovered, was India, or a part of the continent of 



216 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

Asia. This notion was generally received, until 1513, when the Pa- 
cific Ocean being descried from the mountains of the isthmus of 
Darien, the illusion began to be dispelled. 

Fernando Cortez, was a successful, but execrable adventurer. R 
was on the occasion of being sent, in 1519, by the governor of 
Cuba, upon an expedition to the main, that he first heard of the ex- 
istence of the rich and flourishing empire of Mexico. Stimulated 
by the love of power and gain, he resolved to make the conquest ©f 
that country. He had at his command only 617 men, and a very 
few fire-arms, (thirteen muskets and ten small field pieces,) these 
having not yet come into general use. His other instruments of 
death, were cross-bows, swords, and spears. But it was the former 
description of weapons, few as they were, that gained for this 
handful of Spaniards, a conquest over a numerous people. They 
looked upon fire-arms as the weapons of the gods. 

Landing at Vera Cruz, Cortez advanced, though with a brave op- 
position from the natives, into the heart of the country. On the ap- 
proach of the Spaniards to the capital, the terror of their name had 
paved the way for an easy conquest. The Mexican sovereign, Mon- 
tezuma, received the invaders with great hospitality and kindness. 
Indeed, he regarded them with the reverence due to superior beings. 
An occasion, however, was not long wanting, on the part of Cortez, 
for putting his bold and hazardous project into execution. 

Some difficulty between his soldiers and the natives, became the 
pretext for his seizure of Montezuma. Marching to the palace, with 
fifty men, he put the emperor in irons, and carried him off prisoner 
to his camp. This flagrant abuse of their hospitality, aroused the 
Mexicans, who fleeing to arms, expelled the Spaniards from the 
capital. Montezuma having, during the affray, offered to mediate 
between the Mexicans and their enemies, was indignantly put to 
death by one of his own subjects. Gautimozin, son of Montezuma, 
immediately succeeded him, and armed the whole empire against 
tlie perfidious Spaniards. 

Cortez, by a fortunate concurrence of events, having induced a 
nation of the Indians to revolt, and having obtained a reinforcement 
of Spaniards, commenced the siege of the city, and soon took it, to- 
gether with Gautimozin, and became master of the empire, in 1521. 
The emperor was treated by the Spaniards in a manner shocking to 
humanity. Refusing to discover the place where his treasures were 
hid, the miserable man was stretched naked, for some time, on 
burning coals. Soon after, on the discovery of a conspiracy against 
the Spaniards, he was executed on a gibbet, with all the princes of his 
blood. This was the last blow to the power of the Mexicans. The 
nefarious Cortez, and his few associates, enjoy the honour or the in- 
famy, in the way now narrated, of having brought this simple and 
unsuspecting people, under the yoke of Spain. 

While Cortez was employed in the reduction of Mexico, the Span 
iards were informed of a still more rich and extensive empire, in the 
south. This was Peru, at that time governed by the inca, or king, Ata- 
balipa. Francis Pizarro, in 1525, had sailed to and visited the coun 



AMERICA. 217 

ry. He afterwards undertook the conquest of it. in connection 
with Diego Almagro, and Ferdinand Liicques, two unprincipled ad- 
venturers hke himself; and for this purpose, sailed in 1531, from 
l*anama, with three small vessels and 300 men. 

With this inconsiderable force, he invaded the country, and 
marching to the residence of the inca, he seized his person by stra- 
tagem, having employed friendship and religion as the cover of his 
viUany. In this defenceless condition, the king was obliged to sub- 
mit to the slaughter of his attendants, and to the exaction of an 
enormous quantity of gold and silver, as the price of his ransom. 
When, however, the treasure was committed into the hands of the 
Spaniard, with perfidious cruelty, he still retained the wretched 
monarch a prisoner, and finally, by a mock trial, condemned and 
executed him, as a usurper and idolater. 

The vast booty which fell into the possession of the victors, be- 
came soon an occasion of dispute among themselves. War only 
could settle it ; in the course of which, both Pizarro and Almagro 
perished. This contention lasted seventeen years, and Peru became 
the theatre of the most licentious rapine and cruelty. 

In the year 1548, the celebrated Las Casas, was sent from Spain? 
as viceroy. Under his administration, the country obtained repose, 
as a province of Spain; and, notwithstanding the temporary success 
of their new inca, Iluanca Capac, who rose against the Spaniards, the 
whole Peruvian people were effectually broken down and subdued. 

The inhabitants of the American continent and its islands, were 
a race of men quite new to the Europeans. They were of a cop- 
per colour, and had no beard. In some parts of the continent, as 
Mexico and Peru, they had made considerable progress towards 
civilization. They were not wanting, in a degree, as to polish, and 
even luxury. Architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the 
precious metals, were understood. Their persons were clothed, 
their lands cultivated, and their state governed by fixed laws and 
regulations. In Peru there were some magnificent palaces and tem- 
ples. In other parts of tlie new world, man was a naked savage, 
the member of a wandering tribe, whose sole occupation was hunt- 
ing or war. The savages of the continent were characterized alike 
by their cruelty to their enemies, their contempt of death, and their 
generosity towards their friends. The islanders were a milder race, 
of gentle manners, and less robust constitutions. 

The inhumanity with which the Spaniards treated these simple 
and unoffending people, is shocking to every reader of sensibility. 
To convert them to the holy and benevolent religion of the Saviour, 
the most violent means were emploj^^ed, by men who were strangers 
to the spirit of that religion. The rack, the scourge, and the faggot, 
were the principal engines used for their conversion. They were 
hunted down like wild beasts, or burnt alive in their thickets and 
fastnesses. Some of the islands were nearly depopulated. 

The conversion of the Indians, however, was less an object, than the 
desire of obtaining the precious metals which they possessed. So 

19 



218 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

powerful was the passion for gold, that the first adventurers endii- 
red every fatigue, and encountered every danger, in search of it^ 
and, by compelling the natives to dig in the mines, prematurely de- 
stroyed the lives of vast multitudes of this hapless race. It being 
the practice of the Europeans to take possession of the regions in 
America which they visited, by the pretended right of discovery, 
they seem to have made no account of the aboriginals, depriving 
them of liberty, or life, whenever occasion or passion demanded. 

The Spanish acquisitions in America, before the late revolution 
among them, belonged to the crown, and not to the state : they were 
the absolute property of the sovereign, and regulated solely by his 
will. The pope, agreeably to principles which governed men in a 
dark and superstitious age, granted to the monarchs of Spain, the 
countries discovered by their subjects, in America. They were go- 
verned by viceroys, who exercised supreme civil and military ai> 
thority over their provinces. 

Distinguished Characters in Period VIII. 

1. Columbus, an eminent navigator, and discoverer of 
America. 

^ M A cr'l ( masters of painting among the modems. 

4. Erasmus, a Dutchman, eminent in philology and gene- 
ral literature. 

5. Copernicus, a Prussian astronomer, and discoverer of 
the true system of the universe. 

rr' r^ ^ ' ' I eminent theolosrians and reformers. 

7. Calvm, ) ^ 

8. Camoens, a distinguished Portuguese poet. 

9. Buchanan, a Scotch historian and poet. 

10. Montaigne, a celebrated French essayist. 

11. Tasso, prince of Italian poets. 

12. Spenser, one of the greatest of the English poets. 

§ Columbus (Christopher) was born 1442, at Genoa, son of a 
woolcomber. He was early inured to the labours of the sea, and 
acquired great experience in navigation. With the sciences imme- 
diately connected with his profession, he was acquainted, beyond- 
most men of his age. Indeed, this great man was far in advance of 
the rest of the world, and anticipated the ilhimination of a distanl 
futurity. For the splendid discovery which he was destined to 
make, his temperament and his previous course of life, eminently 
fitted him. Tliere was an enthusiasm in his character, a lofty ex- 
pectation, and a religious fervour of soul, which spurned ordinary 
difficulties, and raised him immensely above ordinary men. By his 
knowledge of maritime affairs, as well as by reasoning, he became 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 219 

persuaded that a continent must exist in the western ocean. To 
ascertain the truth of his theory, was an object which soon engross- 
ed all his time and faculties. And, after much effort and many trials 
and disappointments, in regard to assistance, he was permitted to 
realize the grand idea he had so happily conceived. 

He made application to several courts, before he could obtain the 
requisite means and patronage, and it was only after much delay, 
that he was finally enabled to prosecute his discoveries under the 
auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He sailed on the third 
of August, 1492, in three small ships, and returned to Spain in May 
tlie following year. In the mean time he had discovered a new 
world, and had taken possession of a portion of it, in the name of 
his sovereign. This event filled Spain, and all Europe, with amaze- 
ment, and the greatest honours were accorded to him in the coun- 
try, whose annals he has so signally adorned. He made three sub- 
sequent voyages to the new world, in the second of which he reach- 
ed the continent ; but powerful enemies had now risen up, jealous of 
his ascendency, who impugned his motives or decried his services, 
and so much influence had they with the Spanish court, that 
Columbus, in his third voyage was sent back to Spain in irons. 
Though he suffered much in the latter part of life, he finally trium^ 
phed over his enemies, and peacefully left the world, on the twentieth 
of May, 1506. 

The memory of Columbus will be cherished while the world 
stands ; though in consequence of one of those untoward events 
that sometimes occur, he has been deprived of the honour of giving 
his name to the hemisphere which his genius brought to light. 
Signal must have been the satisfaction of his mind, notwithstand* 
ing the disasters through which he passed, in view of the transcen- 
dent benefits which Providence had made him the instrument of 
conferring on mankind. 

2. Raphael (Sanzio) was born at Urbino, 1483. By studying th» 
best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and merited the 
appellation of the divine Raphael. He also excelled as an architect, 
and was employed in the building of St. Peter's, at Rome. He came 
to an untimely grave, in consequence of his addiction to licentious 
pleasures, dying at the age of thirty-seven years. By the general 
consent of mankind, he is acknowledged to have been the prince of 
painters. He excelled in beauty and grace. 

3. Angelo Buonaroti (Michael) was not only a great painter, but 
sculptor, and architect. He was even an elegant poet. In architec- 
ture he surpassed all the moderns, and he was the greatest designer 
that ever lived. He is said to have sucked sculpture with his very 
milk, inasmuch as he was nursed by a woman whose husband was 
eminent in that art. The early displays of his genius, raised so 
great a jealousy among his youthful rivals, that one of them struck 
him with such violence on the nose, that he carried the mark to his 
grave. The most celebrated of his paintings, is the Last Judgment 
His architectural abilities are best displayed on the church of SL 



220 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

Peter's, at Rome, the building of which he completed. His style is 
that of grandeur and sublimity, united with the utriost simplicity and 
beauty. Sir Joshua Reynolds declared, that the last word which 
he wished to utter from the academic chair, was the name of Michael 
Angelo. Description can convey but a very imperfect image of 

"Buonaroti's car 
Midst epic glories flaming from afar." 

Only the sight can give one an idea of his peculiar excellence. He 
lived ninety years. 

4. Erasmus (Desiderius) was the most learned man of the age in 
which he lived, and contributed by his example and writings, to the 
restoration of learning in Europe. He was somewhat of a wander- 
er, having occasionally resided in Italy, Switzerland, Holland, France, 
and England. With the last of these countries he was best pleased, 
and there he met with the greatest encouragement from Henry VH., 
Sir Thomas More, and all the learned Englishmen of those days. 
jHe was the most correct and elegant Latin writer among the mo- 
derns. Rotterdam, is to this day proud of having given birth to 
Erasmus. The house in which he was born is still marked out to 
the admiration of the traveller by a suitable inscription, and a beau- 
tiful copper statue was long since erected to his memory in an open 
part of the city. 

In the great question of Protestantism and Popery, he was claim- 
ed on both sides, though neither party was pleased with him. Here 
is a dark spot on his character. He was evidently temporising, 
timid, and undecided. He lashed the vices and follies of the Pa- 
pists, while he seemed to be indifferent to the success, or jealous of 
the labours of the reformers. He died at Basil, July 12, 1536, aged 
sixty-nine. 

5. Copernicus (Nicholas) was a native of Thome in Prussia. In 
his twenty-third year he went to Italy in search of knowledge. 
After some years' absence, and having in the mean time acted as 
professor of mathematics at Rome, he returned home. Here he 
began to apply his vast knowledge, to an examination of the different 
theories respecting the universe. The simplicity of the Pj" thagorean 
system pleased him best ; and after twenty years of profound inves- 
tigation, he removed from the machine of the universe, the cycles 
and epicycles of former astronomers, and placed the sun in the cen- 
tre to illuminate and control the whole. This great discovery he 
kept concealed for more than thirty years, for fear of exciting against 
himself the persecuting spirit of bigotry. When at last he consent- 
ed, through the importunities of his friends, to have his work pub- 
lished, and a copy of it was brought to him, he was a few hours 
afterwards seized with a violent effusion of blood, which terminated 
his life, 24th May, 1543, in his seventieth year. 

6. Luther (Martin) was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. His 
parents designed him for a civihan, but by the following awful inci- 
dent, his views were directed to the church. As he was walking in 
the fields with a fellow-student, they were struck by lightning, 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 22 

Luther to the ground, and his companion dead by his side. His 
mind was so much affected by the event, that without consulting 
his friends, he formed and executed the resolution of retiring from 
the world. He entered into the order of Augustine hermits, at 
Erfurth. From this place he removed to Wittemberg, being ap- 
pointed by the elector of Saxony, professor of theology and philo- 
sophy in the university just founded there by that prince. It was 
in his retirement at Erfurth, that he providentially found a Latin 
Bible, the first he ever saw, and in perusing it he was astonished at 
the little knowledge of Scripture and Christianity, which the clergy 
then imparted to the people. 

After he had been at Wittemberg three years, he was sent to Rome 
to plead the cause of some converts of his order, who had quarrel- 
led with their vicar-general. While he was at the seat of the papal 
power, he became more than ever convinced of the ignorance and 
debauched lives of the dignitaries of the church. This probably 
gave him the first decided disgust to the Romish ecclesiastical go- 
vernment, especially as he had engaged in the monastic life, from 
motives of genuine piety. Upon his return to Wittemberg, he was 
created D. D. at the request of the elector of Saxony, and continued 
to act as professer of divinity in the university. Here he explained, 
with clearness and ease, the Psalms and the Epistle to the Romans, 
and supported his reputation by the most rigid morality, and the 
most exemplary conduct. 

The minds of his auditors being thus prepared, a favourable occa- 
sion soon offered for carrying into execution his glorious plan of re- 
formation. The completion of St. Peter's church, at Rome, at this 
time, required extraordinary sums, and pope Leo X. published, in 
1517, general indulgences for the forgiveness of sin, to such as 
would contribute to the pious work. The Dominicans were intrust- 
ed with the selling of these indulgences in Germany; and in paying 
their money, the friar Tetzel informed the superstitious people, that 
they might release themselves, not only from past, but also future 
sins. Luther's holy indignation was roused by these vile practices, 
and he preached against them, with wonderful success. Persecution 
soon followed, and the reformer became the object of the papal ven- 
geance. Luther, however, was undismayed, and, in an astonishing 
Hcnes of efforts, in which he was opposed by all the power and 
policy of the papal world, he achieved the object of his long che- 
rished wishes. 

In 1524, Luther threw aside the monastic habit, and the next year 
married a nun, who had escaped from a convent, and, though he 
was ridiculed and censured by his enemies, he confounded them all 
by his appeal to the Scriptures. By her, he had three sons, whose 
descendants are still respected in Germany. Luther died in the 
place of his nativity, 18th February, 1546. 

Luther was singularly qualified for the service he performed. He 
was a man of high endowments of mind, and great uprightness— a 
/riend of true religion, liberty, and human happiness. His under- 

19* 



222 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. 

standing was vast, and his knowledge unequalled, almost, in the age 
in which he lived. Especially had he an admirable acquaintance 
with the Scriptures, which he expounded with equal eloquence and 
clearness. In courage, resolution, and decision, he was an example 
to all reformers. 

7. Calvin, (John,) a coadjutor of Luther in the reformation, was 
born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. His early piety mark- 
ed him out for the church; but though he assumed the functions of 
the ministry, he was too much disgusted with the superstitions of 
the Romish church, to remain in her communion. His knowledge 
of the Bible had opened his eyes to the abominations of the " man 
of sin." He now applied himself to the study of the laws, in which 
he made great progress ; at the same time, he extended his ac- 
quaintance with divinity. He soon entered most cordially into the 
reformation ; and his zeal and labour as a writer and disputant, 
very essentially aided the work. With difficulty, however, he 
escaped from the vengeance of the catholics; but his confidence in 
God was not to be shaken, and having taken his position, he felt 
that it was to be maintained. He spent most of his active life at 
Geneva, where he undertook the ministry, and filled the chair of the 
professor of divinity. He was, however, once expelled the place, 
on account of refusing to administer the sacrament indiscriminately, 
and again experienced trouble in the affair of Servetus. 

Calvin, by his vast abilities, and by his clear views of religion, at- 
tracted the attention of the world, and it might almost be said, that 
" the care of all the churches" rested on him. Many of tlie reformed 
churches of Germany, France, England, and Poland, looked to him 
as their head, and he was in the habit of directing tliem by his let- 
ters. He died, 1564. 

Calvin was a man of pre-eminent piety and talents, and, though 
not foultless, he has rendered such a service to the cause of evangeli- 
cal truth, and of the reformation, as to deserve tlie gratitude of 
posterity. Scaliger says, that no commentator has better hit the 
sense of the prophets than he. 

8. Camoens (Lewis) is known principally as the author of the 
Lusiad, an epic poem, which has been translated into the most im- 
portant languages of Europe. Camoens is deservedly called the 
Virgil of his country, and in his work has displayed great powers 
of description, extensive learning, aiid a sublime imagination. 

Misfortune marked his course in life. In the service of his coun- 
try'-, he lost an eye. On his return from the Indies, whither he had 
gone to better his fortune, he was shipwrecked, and saved his life 
with difficulty, by swimming with his right arm, and holding up 
his poem, with his left. 

After he had published his poem, and dedicated it to the king, he 
was cruelly disappointed, as to patronage ; and feeling all the mise- 
ries of indigence and neglect, he expired in the midst of his ungrate- 
ful countrymen. He lived fifty-two years. 

9. Buchanan (George) was born in the shire of Lenox, in Scot- 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 223 

' land, in 1506. He early embraced, from conviction, the tenets of Lu- 
ther, and, as the consequence, suffered persecution from the catho- 
lics. He became tutor to James I. of England, and employed the 
last twelve or thirteen years of his life, in writing the history of his 
country. He occasionally resided in England and France, but died 
in his native country, at Edinburgh, 1582. His history is written 
in a nervous, elegant, and perspicuous style, but is occasionally de- 
ficient in fidelity and accuracy. He has the reputation of an able 
scholar, whose mind was stored with all the fire, the elegance, and 
the graces of ancient literature, and who, in a barbarous age, revi- 
ved in his poetry, the beauty and grandeur of the Roman muses. 

10. IMontaigne was born of an ancient family at Perigord, in 
France, 1533. He was instructed to speak Latin first, as his mother 
tongue. Disdaining the drudgeries of law, for which he was intend- 
ed, he travelled, with a view to make observations on men and man- 
ners. In the latter part of his life, he enjoyed learned ease and phi- 
losophical society. His essays have been repeatedly pubhshed. 
They are able and amusing productions, though unsafe to be put in- 
to the hands of youth, on account of their scepticism. Some per- 
sons have extravagantly praised them. 

11. Tasso (Torquato) was born at Sorrento, in the kingdom of 
Naples, in 1544, and derives his celebrity from his " Jerusalem De- 
livered," an epic poem of great merit. Like the works of Homer 
and Virgil, it has gained the palm of immortality. Tasso passed a 
life of varied and great suffering. Among other calamities, he was 
confined by the duke of Ferrara, who had been his patron, in an 
hospital, for a long time, under the pretence that he was insane. Tas- 
so had been guilty only of an imprudence. Unfortunately, he had 
fallen in love with the princess Eleonora, the duke's sister, and, on 
a certain occasion, he made bold to embrace her, in the midst of a 
crowded assembly. For this offence, the unfortunate lover was 
obliged to mourn his disappointment in a tedious solitude, rendered 
more tedious by a lingering disease, and occasional lunacy. He was 
at last released, and his merits as a poet began to be more knoAvn ; 
but just as he was on the point of receiving tlie laurel crown from 
the pope, he suddenly expired, and that which was to have been, on 
the next day, his coronation, proved to be the melancholy proces- 
sion of his funeral. He was fifty-one years of age. 

12. Spenser (Edmund) is deservedly regarded as little inferior, 
either in inveiUion or in judgment, and true fire of the muse, to 
any author, ancient or modern. But with all his beauties, he was 
fanciful and chimerical, and without uniformity, so that his poem is 
truly fairy land. His sublimity, variety, and fertile imagination, are 
unfortunately to be set off against his obsolete language, and heavy 
stanza. His Fairy Queen, is his most celebrated poem. 

He was poet laureat to queen Elizabeth, and was employed some- 
what in public life. At one period, he was possessed of wealth ; but 
Desmond's revolt in Ireland, where his property lay, proved his ruin. 
He was plundered and robbed of his estate, one of his children was 



224 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

burned in the conflagration of his house, and broken in heart and 
fortune, he came to London, where he died, in 1598. 



PERIOD IX. 

The period of the English Commonwealth ; extending 
from the Edict of Nantes^ 1598 years A. C, to the death 
of Charles XII. of JSweden, 1718 years A. C. 

FRANCE. 

House of Bourbon. 

Sect. 1 . Henry IV., had now occupied the throne of France 
several years. He had changed his religion from poHtical 
considerations, but did an act of justice to the Calvinists, by 
whose aid he liad secured the sceptre, in granting the famous 
Edict of Nantes, by \vhich he tolerated them, as well as all 
his subjects, in the unfettered exercise of their religion. 

Henry's own great abilities and love of his subjects, aided 
by the talents and industry of his minister, the duke of Sully, 
enabled him to repair the desolations of a thirty years' civil 
war, and to place his kingdom in a state of financial pros- 
perity and general happiness. 

France never had a more popular sovereign. His talents^ 
as a general and statesman, commanded respect, his person 
was prepossessing, his manners a model of good breeding, 
and his love of his subjects inspired a most enthusiastic at- 
tachment to him in return. His private and domestic hfe, 
was however very exceptionable, and infected, by the force 
of example, the manners of the court with no little disso- 
luteness. 

§ A mistress of Henry, an artful, intriguing, ambitious woman, 
had, by consummate management, obtained from him a promise ol 
marriage. This promise, the king showed to Sully, ready signed, 
and the minister, transported with indignation, tore it in pieces. " I 
believe you are mad," cried Henry in a rage. " It is true I am mad,'* 
replied Sully, " and I wish I was the only mad man in France." 
When, after so keen an altercation, Sully thought himself irreco^ 
verably disgraced, he received the brevet of grand master of the 
ordnance. 

Heniy, who had Uved through fifty conspiracies, fell by th© 



PRANCE. 225 

' hand of an assassin, named Ravillac, after a short reign of 
twenty years, too short for the glory of France, just as he 
was entering upon a splendid, but visionary project, of form- 
ing Europe into a Christian republic. 

§ Ravillac was a desperate Catholic bigot, who had long formed a 
design to murder his sovereign. Henry was ready to join his army 
in prosecuting his singular scheme, but was detained against his 
will, on account of the coronation of the queen. In the midst of 
his impatience to depart, his mind was harrassed with sinister fore- 
bodings, and they were too truly realized by the event. Passing 
along a street in Paris, his coach became entangled, and his footmen 
quitting it for a moment, Ravillac, who had followed liim secretly for a 
long time, took advantage of the opportunity, and stabbed him in the 
midst of seven courtiers. The crime of Ravillac was expiated by the 
most horrid tortures. 

Henry's project was to divide Europe into fifteen settled powers, 
none of which should be suffered to make any new acquisitions, and 
should altogether form, an association for the maintenance of a 
mutual balance, and the preservation of peace. There is little evi- 
dence, however, that he thought it practicable. He meant to effect 
it, if at all, by force, and it is certain that he strongly wished to set 
bounds to the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy. The 
latter, therefore, may have been his only real design. 

2. Louis XIII., in his ninth year, succeeded his father, 1610, 
under the regency of Mary of Medicis, his mother. During 
the early part of this prince's reign, France, wdrich had arisen 
to splendour and prosperity, under Henry, evidently retro- 
graded. Mary's partiality for her Itahan courtiers, disgusted 
the nobility, and weakness, faction, and disorder, began to be 
experienced. But when cardinal Richelieu succeeded to the 
ministry, after the duke of Luynes, affairs wore a much 
more favourable aspect. He had vast abilities, and propor- 
tionable influence, which he successfully exerted in subduing 
the turbulence of the nobility, diminishing the power of the 
Protestants, and restraining the encroachments of Austria. 

The principal events of the reign of Louis, were, the ar- 
rest of the prince of Conde, on account of his intrigues 
against the regent, and the subsequent temporary exile of the 
regent herself ; the revolt of the Protestants at Rochelle, 
; and the siege of that place, which lasted a year, and was at- 
tended with the loss of 15,000 lives ; the junction of Louis 
with the Protestant princes of Germany, against the empe- 
ror Ferdinand II., and the revolt of the duke of Orleans, 
supported by the duke of Montmorency. 



226 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

§ The Protestants were accused of a design to form France into 
an independent republic, to be divided into eight circles, on the 
model of those in Germany. Certain it is, that alienated by per- 
secution, they attempted to throw off their allegiance, and Rochelle^ 
was the bulwark and head quarters of their party. Richelieu, 
having become master of the court, the armies, and the fleets, car- 
ried into execution, the plan he had long meditated, that of waging 
war against the Protestants, whom he was resolved to exterminate. 
He accordingly laid siege to Rochelle. On this occasion he acted 
as commander in chief ; but chose to be accompanied by the king, 
for fear his enemies should take advantage of his absence. 

The Protestants implored the aid of England, but were disappoint- 
ed by the tardy measures of the duke of Buckingham. The garri- 
son and inhabitants of Rochelle were resolved, however, to hold out 
until the last extremity. For twelve months they endured the 
miseries of a siege, but were at length obliged to yield to the active 
genius of the cardinal. He triumphed over the Calvinists, and de- 
prived them of their most significant privileges. They never re- 
covered from this blow. 

The union of Louis with the Protestant princes of Germany, 1626, 
OAved its origin to the influence of Richelieu, in his anxiety to hum- 
ble the Austrian greatness. He forgot his hatred of Protestantism, 
for a time, and embarked most eagerly in the cause of the Protes- 
tant princes, who were alarmed at Ferdinand's avowed design 
of suppressing their religion, together with the liberties of the Ger- 
man empire. 

Richelieu's plans were attended with complete success. The 
Protestants and Catholics, laying aside their theological disputes, 
conspired for the diminution of Ferdinand's power ; the court of 
England embarked in the same cause ; the Danes also took up arms, 
and Gustavus, king of Sweden, rushed like a torrent upon Germa^ 
ny. In the course of events, the emperor was effectually humbled, 
and a solid foundation was laid for the prosperity of the empire. 

The haughty minister of Louis, amidst all the pohtical intrigues 
and wars in which he was engaged, found leisure to patronize lite- 
rature and science, and thus to extend the glory of the French na- 
tion, beyond the honour acquired by feats of arms. The French 
Academy owes its institution to the genius of Richelieu. 

Louis died at the age of forty-three years. After he had been 
married twenty- three years, he had two sons, Louis XIV., and PhiHp, 
duke of Orleans. During his reign, the king was a less prominenJ 
object of attention, than his minister, and is not known to have been 
characterised by any particular talents or virtues. 

3. Louis XIV., in the fifth year of his age, ascended the 
tlirone, in 1643, under the regency of Anne of Austria, his 
mother. The talents of this monarch, the vigour of his ad- 
ministration, the splendid events of his reign, his conquests and 
reverses, and the flourishing state of hterature and the arts 



FRANCE. 227 



under his patronage, have been themes of deep interest with 
historians. He is often styled the Great. 

The most conspicuous events of his reign, were his war 
with the Spaniards, which commenced a few days after his 
accession, under the duke of Enghein ; the civil commotions 
called la-1^ ronde, which grew out of Mazarine's ministry - 
the contention with Holland, in 1672, in which he was oV 
posed by the German emperor and Spain, and in which 
h ranche Comte was conquered and united to France ; the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes ; the league of Augsburg 
against France, by which war was waged against that coun- 
try, by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland, and, in con- 
sequence of which, Louis acquired peculiar glory ; and the 
war of the succession, in which he met with woful reverses 
from the allied powers, mider the duke of Maiiboroudi, and 
prince Eugene. 

id k".!^ ^¥J '''^' "^'^ ^^^ Spaniards, the duke of Enghein gained 
the battle of Rocroi ; that of Fribourg in 1644; that of Nordlingen 
in 1645 ; and that of Dunkirk in 1646. The Spaniards were the 
aggressors, havmg taken an advantage of the king's minority, and 
the popular discontents. Ji "^ 

These discontents arose from the ministry of Cardinal Mazarine, 
the lavourite of the regent, who was an Italian, and whose avarice 
was excessive. The burdens which he imposed on the people, and 
the consequent detestation in which he was held, termina>*ed in the 
commotions of the fronde. Cardinal de Retz, had a principal agency 
in exciting this civil war. The parliament of Paris, and the chief 
nobihty, took part with the rebels. The celebrated general, Turenne 
also aided the rebels. A short pacification ensued, but the impru- 
Oent violence of Mazarine, soon renewed the disorders. At length 
the parhament of Paris assumed the right of banishing this unpopu- 
lar minister. When, however, the king became of age. Mazarine re- 
sumed his station as minister, while de Retz and Orleans, the chief 
promoters of the rebellion were banished in their turn 

On the death of Mazarine, in 1661, when Louis was twenty-two 
years of age, he took upon himself the entire control of affairs, and 
.by the splendour of his projects, and the success with which liiany 
lof them were crowned, established throughout the world, his reputi 
ition as an able monarch. His war with Holland soon commenced. 
In which Turenne, and Conde, another great general, gave signal 
proofs of the sagacity of Louis, in the leaders whom he had chosen 
to conduct his military operations. Although Spain and the empe- 
ror jomed the Hollanders, yet Turenne defeated the Imperialists iij 
the pitched battles of Ensheim, Mulhausen, and Turkheim. Some- 
time before, Conde had signalized his arms against Franche Comte, 
which he subjugated m the space of seventeen days. 



228 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

Several powers now became jealous of the ascendency of France, 
and the prince of Orange, whose dominions had been so wanton- 
ly attacked by the French king, had sufficient influence with England, 
to obtahi its alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Louis, 
however, still continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at 
Nimeguen, in 1678, was much to the honour of France. Franche 
Comte was assured, as a part of the dominions of Louis, and Spain 
allowed his right by conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. 

In the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1680, the French king 
manifested a complete dereliction both of wisdom and justice. The 
toleration which was granted to the Protestants by Henry IV., was 
taken away, their worship suppressed, their churches demolished, 
their ministers exiled, and an absolute renunciation of their religion, 
was made the condition with all who chose to continue in their na- 
tive country. If they failed to comply with this requirement, death 
was the consequence, whenever ' they could be found. By this 
measure, the kingdom lost, according to some, 800,000 of her most in- 
dustrious and useful citizens, who either perished, or driven into exile, 
carried the arts and manufactures of France, into various countries. 

The League of Augsburg, in 1686, was brought about by William, 
prince of Orange, the sworn enemy of Louis. His attack on Hol- 
land had betrayed his ambition, and the splendour of his designs 
could not but excite the envy or jealousy of his neighbours. Victory, 
however, attended his standard against all the forces of the leaguers. 
Though the valiant Turenne had perished in battle, the able Conde 
had retired, and Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen of any age, 
was no more, and their places could not be well supplied, yet the 
name of Louis was a host, and the successors of those renowned 
men, were by no means contemptible. Luxemburg defeated the 
prince of Orange, in the battles of Steenkirk and Norwinden ; 
Noailles was victorious in Spain ; and an army of one hundred 
thousand French, ravaged the Palatinate, and took many of the most 
important towns on the Rliine. This was the brightest period of 
his reign. Disasters were soon to follow him. 

The extensive military enterprises of Louis, had been attended 
with enormous expenses. The pride of the monarch had been 
flattered by his victories, but no solid advantage had accrued to the 
nation. The finances had fallen into disorder, and the persevering 
efforts of his enemies, obliged him to conclude the peace of Ryswick, 
in 1697. The war, however, was soon renewed. That was the war 
of the succession. The nations engaged in it were England, Hol- 
land, and the empire, against France and Spain. The avowed object 
on the part of the former, was to put the house of Austria in pos- 
session of the throne of Spain, on the expected death of Charles II.j 
without issue. 

Louis had passed his prime, and lost his greatest generals and 
ministers ; while the armies of his enemies were commanded by the 
ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treasures of the 
united powers. The war was carried on with manifest advantage 



FRANCE. 229 

on the part of the allies. The battle of Blenheim, in which the 
English Marlborough began his victorious career, cost the French 
twenty thousand men. He gained, besides, the battles of Ramilies, 
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. One or two victories on the part of the 
French and Spanish, prevented Philip, king of Spain, from aban- 
doning his possessions in Europe. Louis sued for peace, and even 
proposed very humiliating terms ; but as they were rejected, and the 
hard condition of dethroning his grandson Philip, was insisted on, 
lie made one more desperate effort in battle, in which he was so 
far successful as to preserve Philip on the throne. The change in 
queen Anne's cabinet, gave facility to propositions for peace, in 
which the English and Dutch secured many valuable acquisitions. 

4. Louis died, aged seventy-seven years, having reigned 
more than seventy-two, one of the longest reigns on the 
page of history, and illustrated by many splendid achieve- 
ments. His patronage of literature and the arts, constitutes, 
more than any other which he possessed, his claim to the 
admiration of posterity. No species of merit was suffered to 
go unrewarded, and the finest models of composition in the 
French language, were produced in his reign. All kinds of 
public works were extended and improved — the capital was 
enlarged and beautified, the splendid palace of Versailles 
erected, commerce and manufactures encouraged, and the 
fine canal of Languedoc constructed. 

Louis was remarkable for his able administration of in- 
ternal affairs. His sagacity was peculiarly displayed in the 
selection of his generals and ministers. Besides those that 
have been already mentioned, was the famous Yauban, whose 
great genius was successfully employed in fortifying towns. 
Colbert has been named. His skill in finances, has acquired 
him an immortal reputation. The latter was also a zealous 
patron of learning, thus seconding the designs of his royal 
master. At his suggestion, the celebrated astronomer, Cassini, 
quitted Italy, and placed himself under the protection of the 
king of France, who bestowed on him, and also on Huy- 
gens, a Dutch mathematician of equal celebrity, a very large 
pension. 

Louis was reckoned the handsomest man in his dominions, 
and was celebrated for his pohteness and urbanity. His in- 
tellect was vigorous, but indifferently cultivated. It was the 
great fault of Mazarine, to whom the childhood of Louis 
was entrusted, that he neglected his education. He sought 
for the young monarch, no other accomplishments than those 

20 



230 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

of dancing, fencing, and riding, so that when the latter was 
drawings on towards manhood, he scarcely knew how to pen 
an epistle. 

The love of glory, was perhaps his ruling passion, though 
he was influenced unduly by other passions, to the indelible 
infamy of his private life. How often is it, that an admired 
public pageant, lamentably fails in that which constitutes real 
worth of character. 

GREAT BRITAIN. 

House of Stuart. Commoyiicealth. Restoration of 
Monarchy. 

5. The throne of England, (called towards the close of 
the present period, Great Britain,) was ascended by 
James I., 1603, who was the sixth king of Scotland of that 
name, and son of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots. Thus the 
Bceptre passed with entire tranquillity from the house of 
Tudor, to that of the Stuarts — an event winch was in exact 
accordance with the law of succession, and with the express- 
ed wishes of Elizabeth, and which united the two crowns, 
and eventually made the two kingdoms one. 

§ James I., was a great grandson of Henry VII. When Elizabeth 
was dying, upon being requested to make known her pleasure in 
regard to a successor, she replied " that she had held a royal scep- 
tre, and required no other than a royal successor" — which she ex- 
plained to be one who was then actually a king, viz. " her nearest 
kinsman, the king of Scots." 

The history of Scotland, from the time of Wallace and Robert 
Bruce, to Mary, the mother of James, and rival of Elizabeth, is 
very summarily as follows : 

The son of Robert, was David Bruce, who began to reign in 1329. 
During his minority, on account of the invasion of the kingdom by 
Edward Baliol, he was conveyed to France for security. He was a 
weak, but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverses of for- 
tune. He was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, by Ed- 
ward III., and remained eleven years in captivity. He was ran- 
somed by his subjects, and ended a turbulent reign, in 1370. 

He was succeeded by Robert II., his nephew, and the grandson of 
the great Robert Bruce, whose reign of twenty years' continuance, 
was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and the Enghsh- 

Robert III., then ascended the Scottish throne ; but his infirmities 
and weakness, obliged him to resign the government into the hands 
of his brother, the duke of Albany. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 



231 



James I., a son of Robert, whom Albany had sought to murder, 
and whom the Enghsh had taken prisoner in his attempts to escape 
to France, next ascended the throne, 1424. He was a prince of great 
natural endowments, and profited by a captivity of eighteen years 
in England, adorning his mind with every valuable accomphsh- 
ment. The kingdom had fallen into great disorders, during the 
regency of Albany ; but James, on his return, soon placed affairs on 
a favourable footing. He bent all his attention to the improvement 
and civilization of his people. In restraining the power of the 
nobles, however, as necessary to this end, he incurred their enmity, 
and was accordingly assassinated. 

James H., succeeded his father, 1437. He inherited a portion of 
his father's talents, but possessing an impetuous temper, he pursued 
the plan of humbling the nobles, with excessive rigour. Ruling with 
absolute authority, he was uncommonly successful in attaining the 
objects he had in view, and greatly improved his kingdom. 

His son, James III., without the talents of his predecessors, affected 
to tread in the same steps. But he was impolitic in attaching him- 
self to mean favourites ; and quarreling with the barons, he was killed 
in an insurrection, 1488. 

James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, succeeded to 
the throne. He was respected by his nobles, and beloved by his 
people. Invading England with a powerful army, he fell, with al- 
most the whole of his nobility, in the rash and unfortunate battle of 
Flodden-Field, 1513. 

James V., his son and successor, was a great, but uncultivated 
prince. His reign was long and turbulent, the aristocracy attempt- 
ing to resume their power, and he being employed in defeating their 
projects. He died of a broken heart, in consequence of the infideli- 
ty of his troops, in a war with the English, 10,000 of the Scots having 
deliberately surrendered themselves to the enemy. 

He was succeeded by Mary, whose eventful life and tragical death, 
have been already narrated. 

6. Though the succession of James 1. was tranquil, a few 
events soon occurretl, which tended to disturb his reign. One 
event was, a conspiracy planned to subvert the government, 
by seating on the throne Arabella Stuart, the king's near re- 
lative, descended, hke himself, from Henry VII. 

§ Sir Walter Raleigh, was taken as one of the principals in this plot ; 
and though he was convicted on incompetent evidence, he was only 
reprieved, not pardoned, and lay many years a prisoner in the 
tower. 

A project of a much fouler kind followed. This was the 
gunpowder plot, which was ascribed to the catholics, who, 
disappointed in their expectations from James, were enraged 
beyond measure, and meditated the destruction of the royal 
family, lords and commons, at a meeting of parliament. 



232 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

§ The plot was discovered, just as it was on the eve of execution. 
It was intended, on the part of the conspirators, to blow up the 
house in which the parliament should assemble, by means of gun- 
powder, which had been secreted in the cellar of the building. 
Twenty conspirators had sacredly kept this dreadful secret, nearly 
a year and a half; but the same bigotry which had given rise to the 
plot, was directed as an engine by Providence, to reveal it. A few 
days before the meeting of parliament, a catholic member of it, re- 
ceived, from an unknown hand, a letter, advising him not to attend 
the meeting, and intimating to him, obscurely, what was about to 
take place. 

This, on the part of the member, was considered merely as a 
foolish attempt to frighten him. He, however, showing it to the 
king, the superior sagacity of the latter, led him to conceive, that al- 
lusion was made to danger from gunpowder. The following sen- 
tence in the letter, seems to have suggested the idea to the king. 
" Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet, I say, they will 
receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see 
who hurts them." 

Search was now determined to be made in the vaults under the 
house of parliament. With the view, however, that they might de- 
tect not only the conspiracy, but the conspirators, they were quiet 
till the night before the commencement of the session. The plan oi 
the king succeeded. A man by the name of Guy Fawkes, was found 
at the door, who was immediately seized, the faggots, and powder, 
to the amount of thirty-six barrels, discovered, and the very matches 
to set fire to the train, were detected in his pocket. He gave up the 
names of his accomplices, eighty in number, who, with himself, 
were all put to death. 

7. The puritans, who had already become conspicuous, 
having first appeared in the reign of Mary, indulged the ex- 
pectation at the accession of James, of meeting with special 
favour from the new monarch, because he had been educated 
a presbyterian. Their disappointment, but especially the re- 
straints and persecutions which they endured, forced num- 
bers of them to the new Avorld, where they laid the founda- 
tions of a great nation. 

Domestic events, such as have been recorded, chiefly dis- 
tinguished the reign of James. He exerted, and wished to 
exert, no influence abroad. His dispositiou was altogether 
pacific. When, in the early part of his reign, he was solicited 
to join in a league with Henry lY., the United Provinces, 
and the northern crowns, to repress the exorbitant power oi 
the house of Austria, he would have nothing to do with the 
scheme. 

The Stuarts, as well as Tudors, were strenuous advocates 



GREAT BRITAIN. 233 

for the royal prerogative, in the widest exercise. This was 
especially the case with James. He was prejudiced against 
the Puritans, on account of their notions of liberty, and took 
part with the established church. It was a favourite maxim 
with him — " No bishop, no king." But the minds of English- 
men were undergoing a change. Light had increased, and 
juster notions of the people's rights began to obtain. The 
opposition of parliament to the royal prerogative, was carried 
to a great height, and laid the foundation of those fatal strug- 
gles which, in the next reign, subverted the monarchy. 

James died after a reign of twenty-two years over Eng- 
land, and of nearly his whole life over Scotland. The pri- 
vate character of this prince, is not free from reproach. His 
disposition, however, was mild ; and his reign, though not 
glorious, in the usual sense of that word, was yet, in many 
respects, happy and prosperous to his people. On them he 
bestowed the care of a parent. 

§ James was ingenious and learned, and yet pedantic withal. Of 
flattery, he was excessively fond, and there were parasites to deal it 
out to him without measure. On a certain occasion, he publicly 
proposed the question, whether he might not take his subjects' mo- 
ney, when he wanted it, without the formality of parliaments. 
" God forbid," replied the obsequious Neile, bishop of Durham, " but 
tliat you should, for you are the very breath of our nostrils." 

James is said to have been pusillanimous in life, but he shewed 
himself courageous in death, being so composed as to close his own 
eyes in his last struggle. Perhaps, a people vv^ho delighted in war, 
and valued blood and treasure less than the splendour of battles and 
conquests, were incapable of doing justice to the principles that 
guided the public conduct of this prince. Hence the contempt, 
which has sometimes been expressed against his benign and gentle 
policy. Saving his high notions of prerogative, and his attempt 
to sustain them, there was nothing, during this reign, to mar the 
happiness of a great people. 

Two of the greatest names in the records of genius, Shakspeare 
and Bacon, besides others, adorned the times of James, and the lat- 
ter part of the period of Elizabeth. 

8. Charles I., ascended the throne in 1625. The king- 
dom, at this time, was in a prosperous condition ; but the 
principles of liberty had expanded the minds of many of 
his subjects, and they demanded a more Uberal system in the 
administration of the government, than was observed by his 
immediate predecessors. This demand, however, Charles 

20* 



234 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

repelled, and he shewed that he possessed the same arbitrary- 
principles with his father, without the prudence of the latter. 
The refusal of the parliament, to grant adequate supplies, 
for enabling the king to carry on a war, first in support of his 
brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, and afterwards with 
France and Spain, led Charles to adopt the resolution ol 
ruhng without theii* aid, and of levying money in the most 
illegal forms. 

§ The manifestation of a tyrannical disposition, on the part of 
Charles, first soured the minds of his parhament against him. Be- 
ing engaged to his alhes, the king could not brook the denial of sup- 
phes, and accordingly dissolved the parliament, and issued warrants 
for borrowing money of the subject. A new parliament was found 
equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy of the king, by the 
impeachment of his minister, Buckingliam. Charles, however, 
avenged the insult, by imprisoning two members of the house of 
commons. A quarrel thus began, received continued additions from 
new causes of offence. 

The king, in his wars with France, sent troops to assist the French 
calvinists ; but, after an unsuccessful expedition under Buckingham, 
they were obliged to return to England. Rochelle was, in conse- 
quence, reduced to extremity, by which the protestant interest re- 
ceived an irrevocable blow in France. The blame of every public 
miscarriage was thrown upon Buckingham, who sheltered himself 
under the royal protection, till he was assassinated by one Felton, 
just as he was ready to embark for the relief of Rochelle. 

The death of this worthless favourite, however, did not deter 
Cliarles from his arbitrary proceedings, which the English patriots, 
in that enlightened age, justly considered as so many acts of tynm- 
ny. His impositions upon trade, without the voice of parliament, 
many of the merchants, and some members of the house of com- 
mons, refused to pay. 

A new parliament, which was now convoked, exhibited a spirit 
of determined reformation. A petition of right was passed by both 
houses, which declared the illegality of raising money without their 
sanction, or enforcing loans from the subject ; annulled all taxes im- 
posed without consent of parliirment, and abolished the exercise of 
martial law; and CliHiles was obliged, with much reluctance, to 
give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives. The 
tjaxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been continued from 
one reign to another. On this ground, the king conceived he was 
warranted to levy them without a new grant ; and a member of the 
house of commons refusing to pay them, was imprisoned. A com- 
motion being excited, parliament was dissolved. 

9. About this time, a great number of Puritans, weary of the 
restraint they experienced in England, under the domineering 
spirit of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, embarked for Ameri- 



GREAT BRITAIN. 235 

ca, where they spread the hberty of which they were deprived 
at home. But at length the enemies of that sect prevailed 
on the king to forbid these emigrations. This providentially 
proved a very unhappy affair for Charles, inasmuch as John 
Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, were prevented 
from going. 

§ Hampden rendered himself illiistrions, by his talents and virtue, 
and particularly by the firm stand he made against the illegal impo- 
sition called ship money. He refused to pay a small sum, that had 
been levied against him, and ventured to assert the liberty of En- 
glishmen, by risking a legal prosecution. All England was deeply 
interested in the trial, and tliis was the favourable result which he 
realized, though the venal judge decided the cause against him. 
The people began to see their danger. 

At a time when the public feeling was running strongly in favour 
of Puritanism, and a simpler form of worship, Laud, with a most 
intemperate and insulting zeal, was engaged in loading the church 
with new ceremonies. Things might have gone on in this train for 
some time ; but attempting likewise to introduce the liturgy of the 
church of England among the Scots, the most violent commotions 
were produced. A bond, termed the National Covenant, containing 
an oath of resistance to all religious innovations, was subscribed in 
Scotland, by all ranks and conditions. To maintain this proceeding, 
the Scotcli reformers took up arms, and soon marched into the 
heart of England. 

At the same time, a catholic rebellion arose in Ireland, which the 
people imputed to the arts of the royalists; and to complete the misfor- 
tune of the king, the parliament, which had been necessarily convoked, 
proceeded to such extremities in its acts, that they were considered 
tantamount to a declaration of war against the king and his party. 

10. Things had arrived at such a pass, that the sword was 
now to decide the contest. The two houses of parliament 
took into their hands the force constituted by the mibtia of 
tiie country, and at the same time the king erected his stand- 
ard at Nottingliam, 1642. Several battles were fought, du- 
ring three or four consecutive years, with various success; 
but at length the royalists were overcome, and the king 
was thrown into the hands of his enemies. The cause of 
Charles was supported by a large proportion of the landed in- 
terest, all the friends of the established cluu'ch, and all the 
adherents of the papacy ; that of the parliament, by the city 
of London, and most of the great towns, and all the dissen- 
ters from the establishment. Cavaliers was the term appUed 
to the supporters oY the king — Round Heads to those of the 
parhament. 



236 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

§ The parliament, in order to carry on hostilities with the greater 
prospect of success, had entered into a strict confederacy with the 
Scots, who were already in a menacing attitude. The new bond 
which they formed, was more specific in its objects than the former, 
and more determined in its spirit. It was called the " Solemn 
League and Covenant," and it brought an accession of 20,000 men 
to the forces of the parliament. 

Oliver Cromwell, an officer under Fairfax, general of the parlia- 
ment, in reality, directed all the measures of the army. This extra- 
ordinary man, as will presently appear, was destined to perform an 
extraordinary part in the transactions of this period. The two first 
battles, viz. those of Edgehill and Newbury, were favourable to the 
royalists ; but those of Marston Moor and Naseby, terminated in 
their overthrow. Never were the morals and religion of an army 
more carefully watched, than those of the soldiers of CromwelL 
Previously to each battle, it was customary with them, individually, 
to spend some time in prayer. 

When the king was taken by a party of Cromwell's soldiers, af- 
ter having been delivered up by the Scots, among wliom he had 
sought protection, he was conveyed first to Hurst castle, and then 
to Windsor, and at last to London. The parliament at this time, 
influenced by Cromwell, having declared it treason in a king to levy 
war against his parliament, a court, consisting of 133 men, were ap- 
pointed to try him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. Charles de- 
clined the jurisdiction of the court, and refused to plead. He was 
nevertheless condemned to suffer death, and was beheaded the third 
day afterwards, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty- 
fourth of his reign. 

On tlie morning of the fatal day, 'which was the 30th of January, 
1649, Charles rose earlier than usual, and calling one of his attend- 
ants, bade him employ more than usual care in adjusting his dress. 
As lie was preparing for the block, he observed, in reply to some 
exhortations addressed to him by the bishop of London, "I go from 
a corruptible to an an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance 
can have place." He submitted to the stroke with entire resigna- 
tion. 

Charles had many virtues, and, in private life, was estimable and 
engaging, beyond most princes. As a sovereign, he had unfortu- 
nately imbibed, in his education, the arbitrary principles which dis- 
tinguished his ancestors ; but with the disadvantage of living in an 
age and country, in which a king could not be a tyrant with impu- 
nity. He deceived the parliament too often for them to trust him, 
and suffered himself to be guided by counsellors much inferior to 
him in knowledge and judgment, while he paid an unwise deference 
to the advice of his queen, who was a bigoted papist. Granger 
says, " He would have made a much better figure in private life, 
than he did upon a throne." 

We may lament the fate of Charles, as severe, and perhaps unne- 
cessary ; and must condemn several of the acts of the republicans, 
as passionate and oppressive ; yet Providence seems to have overruled 



GREAT BRITAIN. 237 

the events of the times, for the advancement of civil liberty, and for 
the general good of mankind. Had Charles lived, England might 
have been still governed by despots, instead of limited monarchs. 

Charles was an anthor, both in prose and verse. The Icon Basi- 
like, a work which appeared soon after the king's death, and excited 
much commiseration for his fate, has often been attributed to him. 
The authorship of that work, however, remains a matter of dispute. 
If Charles wrote it, his talents, in composition, must have been much 
superior to those of most contemporary scholars. Hume considers 
it the best prose composition which, at the time of its publication, 
was to be found in the English language : and D'Israeh remarks, that 
the political reflections it contains, will be found not unworthy of 
Tacitus. 

In a poem of his, entitled " Majesty in Misery," the following stan- 
zas will show his manner in poetry. 

" With my own power my majesty they wound, 
In the king's name, the king himself 's uncrown'ti ; 
So doth the dust destroy the diamond. 

Felons attain more privilege than I, 
They are allow'd to answer ere they die ; 
'Tis death to me to ask the reason why." 

11. On the death of Charles I., monarchy in England was 
dissolved, and the house of lords was abolished as useless, by 
the commons. The forms of all public business were chang- 
ed from the king's name, to that of the keepers of the liber- 
ties of England. Religion shared in the revolutions of the 
times. 

§ Presbyterianism, which had succeeded episcopacy, now began to 
yield to the independent interest. Cromwell so managed, as to 
transfer to the army, the power whicli the parliament had not long 
before taken into their ov/n hands. Presbyterians had been mostly 
excluded from parliament, and that part of the house which re- 
mained, termed, in derision, the Rump, was composed of Indepen- 
dents, under Cromwell's influence. As is often the case, the milita- 
ry power proved fatal to those Presbyterians who had employed 
it to effect their own purposes. 

12. The confusions which overspread England, upon the 
dissolution of monarchy, could be settled only by the great 
influence, both civil and military, acquired by Ohver Crom- 
well, who was peculiarly fitted for the age in which he lived, 
and for the part which he was destined to act. 

§ The situation of Ireland and Scotland, gave some inquietude to 
the new republic. The duke of Ormond, at the head of 16,000 
men, had recovered many places in the former country, from the 
parliament; while in Scotland, Charles II., had been proclaimed 
king, on the condition of his strict observance of the covenant. Crom- 
well, with his usual cunning, procured for himself the appointment 



238 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IX. 

of commander-in-chief in Ireland. He accordingly passed over to 
that country, and soon put an end to the successes and authority of 
Ormond. He next marched into Scotland, at the head of 16,000 
men, and defeated the royalist covenanters, in the battle of Dunbar. 
Upon the retreat of their army into England, Cromwell pursued it 
thither, and overtaking it at Worcester, the whole was annihilated by 
him in one desperate battle. The king was obliged to flee. 

It was with great difficulty, and after many adventures, that the 
latter eflected his escai.e. He first retired to Boscobel, a lone house 
on the borders of Stciffordshire, inhabited by one Penderell, a far- 
mer, who, in conjunction with his four brothers, served him with 
unshaken fidelity. They clothed him in a garb like their own, and 
employed him, like themselves, in cutting faggots, and he partook 
of their homely fare. On one occasion, when his enemies were in 
search of him, he ascended an oak, where he was effectually con- 
cealed a whole day, among the leaves. In this situation, he saw seve- 
ral of his pursuers pass by, wliom he overheard expressing their 
wish to be able to find him. This tree was afterwards known, and 
venerated, under the name of the royal oak. He succeeded, eventu- 
ally, in reaching France. 

The republic, at this era, acted with uncommon vigour. Admiral 
Blake, and other naval officers, now carried the terror of the English 
name, by sea, to all quarters of the globe. Under his command, a 
war with Holland was ably maintained against the celebrated Dutch 
commanders. Van Tromp and De Euyter ; but the advantage was 
greatly in favour of the English, who took IGOO of the Dutch ships. 
The famous Navigation act, which the parliament passed at this time, 
had a most favourable eflfect on the commerce and naval superiority 
of Great Britain. 

An attempt being made to reduce the land army, at this time, 
Cromwell remonstrated against it, and demanded a new parliament. 
But this meeting with no regard, he entered, in great rage, into the 
house, attended by 300 soldiers, and, loading the parliament with 
reproaches, bade them be gone, and give place to honester men. The 
republic of England, which had subsisted four years and three 
months, was thus, in a moment, annihilated, April 20th, 1653. 

Cromwell, however, though he had seized the reins, could not 
well deny his subjects a parliament. He therefore summoned 144 
persons in England, Scotland, and Ireland, to assemble as the repre- 
sentatives of the nation. They were his creatures ; and though some 
of them possessed the quality and degree of gentlemen, they were 
generally, as Clarendon says, " a pack of Aveak, senseless fellows, 
fit only to bring the name and reputation of parliaments lower than 
it was yet." This body was called Praise God Barebones' parlia- 
ment, from the name of a certain member, a leather seller, who dis- 
tinguished himself by speaking. Incompetent to their duties, they 
re-delivered to Cromwell, at the expiration of five months, the 
instrument they had received from him, calling them together, and 
besought him to take care of the commonwealth. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 239 

13. The supreme power of the nation, now passing into 
the hands of Cromwell and his Council of officers, he was 
declared, by the latter. Protector of the Commonwealth of 
England, wnth the title of Highness, 1654. In this capaci- 
ty, he exercised greater power, than had ever been annexed 
to the regal dignity. He gave the command of all the forces 
in Scotland, to General Monk, and sent his own son, Henry, 
to govern Ireland. Administering the government with en- 
ergy and ability, and granting religious toleration, the repub- 
lic greatly flourished. Its rights ^vere respected abroad 
Success attended the usurper, both in negociation and battle. 
In an engagement which was fought with the Spaniards in 
Flanders, the latter were defeated ; and Dunkirk being soon 
after surrendered, was by agreement, dehvered to CromwelL 

Notwithstanding the general correctness of his administra- 
tion, he was never popular, either with the royalists or repub- 
licans. He had subverted the freedom of his country, and 
his professions passed for nothing. He had reached a fearful 
elevation, and was consequently kept in perpetual inquietude. 
Neither society nor solitude could soothe his agitated mind. 
Fearing assassination, he was constantly attended by his 
guards, and changed the place of his sleeping, every few 
nights. Seized at length, with a slow fever, he died, A. C. 
1658, in the sixtieth year of his age. 

§ In regard to the character of Oliver Cromwell, what was said of 
Cinna, has been applied to him. " He attempted those things 
which no good man durst have ventured on ; and achieved those in 
which none but a valiant and great man could have succeeded." 
This, however, is the judgment rather of an enemy than friend. 
Respecting his capacity, there can be but one opinion ; but mankind 
have viewed his moral qualities in very different lights. He has in 
this respect been oftener condemned than approved. Indeed, he 
is no favourite of history, as no man of equal merit or fewer faults, 
has been so often held up to suspicion, derision, or hatred. There 
are, however, those who, while they promptly condemn his dissimu- 
lation and ambition, can see much to admire in the strict morality 
and devotions of a man, who, in private life, apparently reverenced 
the institutions of religion. 

14. Richard Cromwell, by the father's dying request, suc- 
ceeded the latter in the protectorate. He was acknowledged 
in all parts of the empire ; but as he wanted resolution, and 
•possessed none of those arts which take with the soldiery, he 
floon signed his own abdication. He retued to private life, 



240 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

and his virtues secured to him, rare enjoyment to extreme 
old age. 

15, After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Charles 
II. was restored to the throne of his ancestors, 1660. The 
short interval that occurred, was a season of anarchy. 

§ The restoration was effected by the wishes of the people, who 
seem to have thought, that neither peace nor protection could be 
obtained, unless the ancient order of things should be re-estaolished. 
Monk, a man of military abilities, had the sagacity to observe this 
change in the sentiments of the people ; and after temporizing in 
various shapes, rendered himself master of the parliament, through 
which Charles was duly acknowledged. 

16. Charles, who was thirty years of age when he began 
his reign, made a favourable impression on his subjects, by 
means of his personal appearance and accomplishments, and 
of the superior character of his intellect. He was easy in 
manners, unaffectedly polite, gay in his temper, lively, witty, 
and a great observer of men and tilings. It must be added, 
also, that he was base and unprincipled, and became at length 
immersed in pleasure and indolence. He was personally a 
favourite with his subjects, and continued so to be ; although 
the government became unpopular, after the king was so 
immersed in private gratification, as to neglect the true in- 
terests of his realm. Still, in this case, he escaped the re- 
proaches which he merited, and most of the odium of ex- 
travagance and unsuccessful public measures, fell on his ad- 
visers. The whole royal party were so elated at the return 
of their sovereign, that they were dissolved in thoughtless 
jollity, and many of the republicans, especially the younger 
part and the women, were glad to be released from the 
gloomy austerity of the commonwealth. During this reign^ 
dissipation and infidelity became greatly prevalent. 

Charles was distinguished by the same arbitraiy notions 
which had prevailed with his ancestois ; and though there 
were many struggles like those in the preceding reigns, a 
surprising change had taken place in the feeling of the peo- 
ple in general, in consequence of which, he escaped the fate 
of his father. The slavish doctrines of passive obedience 
and non-resistance, now came into repute, opposed indeed by 
the enemies of the crown. This was the origin of the dis- 
tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory — the former oppos- 
ing the crown, the latter advocating it. This is a distinction 



GREAT BRITAIN. 241 

of parties still existing. The Whigs have always favoured 
the rights of the people, the Tories, those of the monarch. 

In consequence of high church, or tory principles, an act 
of uniformity in religion was passed, by which two thousand 
Presbyterian ministers, were deprived of their livings. 

§ We may enumerate among the other events of this reign, the 
following— an act of indemnity, by which ten only, out of twenty- 
eight who were tried and condemned for the murder of the king, 
were devoted to death — the sale of Dunkirk for £400,000, required 
by the prodigality of Charles, and which he soon squandered upon 
his pleasures — the war with the Dutch, which, afior an immense ex- 
penditure, v/as attended with no material beneiit — and finally, the 
measures excited by the influence of the duke of York, (afterwards 
James II.) consisting of numerous attacks upon the lives, liberties, 
and properties of the people, mingled with party intrigues, plots, and 
conspiracies. 

Before the reign of Charles expired, the Whigs became predomi- 
nant in parliament, and raging furiously against the Catholics, in- 
sisted on the king's assent to the bill for the exclusion of his brother, 
the duke of York. This affair induced the king to dissolve two 
parliaments in succession. The consequence was, that England was 
thrown into a flame. But the king took measures to crush or in- 
timidate the opponents of the court. Lord Russel, who had been 
remarkable for liis opposition to the popish succession, Algernon 
Sydney, and several other distinguished protestants, were tried, con- 
demned, and executed. The ground of proceeding against them, 
was a pretended conspiracy in favour of reform, called the Rye- 
House Plot. A pretended Popish Plot had, previously to this, been 
disclosed by the unprincipled Titus Gates, by means of which Lord 
Stafford and some other Catholics were condemned and executed. 

17. It was thought that Charles, having been guilty of 
arbitrary conduct, intended to take some measures for the 
future quiet of his reign, when he was seized with a sudden 
fit of illness, and after languishing a few days, expired, 1685, 
in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-fifth of his 
reign. 

§ In addition to what has already been said of the character of 
Charles, it may be observed, that though he was a genius, he acted 
in direct opposition to every principle of sound policy. He chose 
rather to be a pensioner of France, from whose king he received 
£200,000 a year, for the concealed purposes of establishing popery 
and despotic power, than the arbiter of Europe. Rochester's epi- 
grammatic jest, that Charles " never said a foolish thing, and never 
did a wise one," forms a tolerable motto for his " picture in little." 

Charles, it is said, had a constant maxim, which was, never to 
fall out with any, let the provocation be ever so great ; by which he 
observed, he had found great benefit all his life j and the reason he 

21 



242 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

gave for it was, that he did not know how soon it might be necessary 
for him to have them again for his best friends. It has hkewise 
been said of this king, that had he loved business as well as he un- 
derstood it, he would have been the greatest prince in Europe. 

Dryden did not scruple to laud this prince, in a fulsome manner, 
as in the lines, 

"Truly good and truly great : 
For glorious as he rose, benignly so he set." 

18. On the death of Charles, the duke of York was im- 
mediately proclaimed king under the title of James IT., 1685. 
The history of this reign consists of little more than the 
weak and irresohite efforts of a bigotted and tyrannical prince, 
to introduce popery ; an attempt so absurd, that it did not 
meet with the least encouragement from the pope himself. 

§ The capacity of James was by no means equal to the subversion 
of those deep and solid foundations, which supported the civil and re- 
ligious liberties of his people. The share which he had in his father's 
sufferings had not sufficiently taught him, that the jealousy of the 
royal prerogative, was too strong in the hearts of his subjects, to be 
easily allayed. He was so violent and precipitate in his conduct, that 
he never failed to counteract his own purposes; and he established the 
protestant religion, on a firmer basis than ever, by his wild attempts 
to introduce those of the church of Rome. Though lie ascended 
the throne with many advantages, he could never sit easy in it; and 
having taught even the advocates of non-resistance, to resist, he was 
forced to relinquish a crown, which he was absolutely unfit to wear. 

19. One of the principal events of his reign, was the re- 
beihon of the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles 
II., who undertook to seize the crown. He was defeated at 
Bridgewater, by the king's forces, taken prisoner, and be- 
headed. Had this victory been managed with prudence by 
James, it would have tended much to increase his authority ; 
but the cruelty with which the revolt Avas punished, and the 
rash confidence with which this success inspired the king, 
led to his ruin. That most profligate of all the judges that 
ever sat on the Enghsh bench, Jeffries, aided the king in 
the work of murder, to an extent that has called down on 
him the execrations of mankind. He was wont to boast of 
the numbers whom he had adjudged to the gallows. 

The spirit of the nation was roused, by the offensive and 
tyi-annical measures which James took to estabhsh popery ; 
and many great men in England and Scotland, applied for 
relief to WiUiam, prince of Orange, who had married Mary 
the eldest daughter of James. William accordingly embark- 



* GREAT BRITAIN. 243 

ed for England, with an army, and determined, agreeably to 
request, to assume the government. 

§ Upon the arrival of the prince, he was joined, not only by the 
Whigs, but by many whom the king had considered his best friends. 
Even his daughter Anne, inspired with protestant zeal, deserted 
him, and, with her husband, prince George of Denmark, joined the 
invader. 

Upon this, James, reasonably filled with distrust of his 
people, fled to France, where the palace of St. Germain was 
assigned him; but as one remarks, "the convent of La 
Trappe would have been a much more suitable retreat." Li 
France, he spent the remainder of his hfe. 

A convention-paiiiament declared the king's flight an ab- 
dication, and settled the crown upon William and Mary. 

§ The duke of Buckingham gave this character of the two royal 
brothers, Charles and James ; that " the elder could see things if he 
would, and the younger would see things if he could." 

On the access of James, an address of the quakers to him, is high- 
ly characteristic of that shrewd sect. " We come to condole the 
death of our friend Charles ; and we are glad that thou art come to 
be our ruler. We hear that thou art a dissenter from the church of 
England, and so are we. We beg that thou wouldst grant the same 
liberty that thou takest thyself, and so we wish thee well. Fare- 
well." 

20. WilHam and Mary now ascended the throne. This 
event constitutes what the British writers are pleased to call 
the glorious revolution of 1688. In the settlement which 
was then made of the crown, the sole administration remain- 
ed in the prince. The protestant succession was secured ; 
rehgious toleration granted, and presbyterianism re-establish- 
ed in Scotland. A declaration of rights was also made, in 
which the chief subjects of dispute between the king and 
people, were finally determined. The powers of the royal 
prerogative were more narrowly circumscribed, and more ex- 
actly defined, than in any former period of the English go- 
vernment. 

§ A revolution became indispensable, inasmuch as the principles 
of religious liberty were now generally established in Britain, and 
the princes of the house of Stuart, from their arbitrary notions, 
entertained a strong aversion to a large portion of their subjects. 
There was, however, a class, chiefly among the clergy, who held 
the doctrines of passive obedience, and the divine right of kings and 
bishops. Numbers of these, looking upon James as their Mwful 
king, and refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William, were 



244 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

deprived of their stations. Hence, they were styled " non-jurorSy 
high-churchmen, and Jacobites." 

21. William experienced a degree of trouble from Ireland, 
as that country still adhered to James. The latter, being 
assisted by Louis XIV., landed with some French forces in 
Ireland, where he was joined by a large army of Irishmen. 
William, however, defeated them, in the memorable battle of 
Boyne, and the country submitted to the new king. 

During most of the reign of this prince, the nation was 
involved in many active wars. Their principal cause was 
the ambition of Louis XIV. These wars were carried on 
with vigour and success, though without any distinguished 
actions, unless it be the sea-fight of La Hogue. The peace 
of Ryswick, in 1697, terminated hostilities, and it was ap- 
parent that the power of France Avas weakened. The prin- 
ciple on which William acted in his foreign w^ars, w^as, the 
balance of power, of which he was an ardent advocate. 

§ Louis, who used James to prom ate his own intercet, was deter- 
mined, if possible, to restore him to the throne. With this object, 
he furnished him with a powerful fleet, and the exiled prince re- 
paired to La Hogue, whence he was ready to embark for England. 
The English admiral, Russel, pat to sea with all possible expedition, 
and being reinforced by the Dutch squadron, he sailed for the coast of 
France, with ninety ships of the line, besides frigates and fire-ships. 
Oh the 19th of May, 1692, the hostile fleets met off La Hogue ; and, 
after a bloody contest of ten hours, victory declared in favour of the 
English. The French, who had fifty-three ships of the line, lost 
a great part of their fleet, and could not be made to hazard another 
battle by sea. James returned in despair to St. Germains, where he 
died, in 1701, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, having, some time 
before his death, laid aside all thoughts of worldly grandeur, and 
subjected himself to uncommon penance and mortification. His 
body, brains, and heart, like those of Richard I., were deposited in 
different cemeteries. 

22. After the death of James, notwithstanding the succes- 
sion of the crown had been settled in the house of Hanover, 
his son was proclaimed king of England, at St. Germains, 
and treated as such at the court of Versailles. This act so 
exasperated the British nation, that both houses of parliament 
assured his majesty, that they would assist him to the ut- 
most of their power, against all his enemies, and the whole 
kingdom joined in a cry for war with France. While Wil- 
liam was making preparations for the approaching conflict, 
he was suddenly removed by death, in the fifty-second yeai 



GREAT BRITAIN. 



245 



of his age, and fourteenth of his reign. His excellent consort, 
and partner in the throne, died seven years before him, of the 
small pox. 

§ In person, William was small and slender. His complexion was 
brown, his nose Roman, and his eye piercing. His genius was pene- 
trating, and his judgment sound ; but in his manners he was distant, 
and better qualified to gain respect than love. 

During this reign, the system of borrowing money on remote 
funds commenced, which laid the foundation of the present national 
debt. A standing army, too, was first sanctioned by parliament, in 
the time of this prince, a measure only to be defended by the rela- 
tive situation of Europe. 

23. The crown now, (1702,) devolved on Anne, the 
second daughter of James IT., who was married to George, 
prince of Denmark. Her reign is one of the most illustrious 
in British history. The arms of England were every where 
triumphant, nor were the acliievements of its scholars less 
conspicuous. The great names of Newton, Locke, Addison, 
Swift, and others, have immortalized tlie times of the " Good 
Q,ueen Anne," as she has been familiarly called. Though 
not endowed with superior talents, she was respected for her 
virtues. The mihtary and literary distinction of her reign, 
could not, in any great degree, be attributed to her personal 
conduct or councils. 

The principal events of her reign were, her war against 
France, carried on by the duke of Marlborough, the greatest 
general of the age, who gained the splendid victories of Blen- 
heim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, the constitution- 
al union between England and Scotland, in 1706, and the 
confusions occasioned by the high party spirit which prevail- 
ed in the latter part of the queen's reign. 

§ The war against France, continued from the commencement to 
the last year but one of her reign. Germany and Holland were in 
alliance with England. The commander, on the part of the empire, 
who was associated with Marlborough, was prince Eugene. In the 
famous battle of Blenheim, the Frencli lost twenty thousand men. 
The duke, during the engagement, rode through the hottest of the 
fire, but neither in this, nor in any other conflict, did he receive a 
wound. This victory saved the house of Austria from ruin. In the 
battle of Ramilies, six thousand of the enemy lost their lives, and 
seven thousand were captured ; and this success was soon followed 
by the general conquest of the Netherlands. In the course of a most 
successful war on the part of the allies, Louis was humbled to a de- 
gree, that obliged him to demand peace, which, though at first refu- 

21* 



246 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

sed, took place in 1713, when the change in Anne's ministry, gave a 
facility to negociations for that object. 

In the treaty of peace which was signed at Utrecht, Spain yielded 
to England all right to Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, while 
France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, St. 
Christopher's, and Newfoundland. 

Of Marlborough, it may be said, that he never laid siege to a town 
which he did not take, or fought a battle which he did not win. His 
understanding was as injurious to France as his arms. At St. James', 
he was a perfect courtier, the head of a party in parliament, and in 
foreign countries, one of the ablest negociators that any age has pro- 
duced. 

In the constitutional union of England and Scotland, it was stipu- 
lated, that the united kingdoms of Great Britian, should be represent 
ed by one and the same parliament, that Scotland should be repre 
sented by sixteen peers and forty-five commoners, and that al] peers 
of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain, and rank next after 
English peers, of the like orders and degrees. 

The confusions occasioned by high party spirit, were aggravated 
after the occurrence of peace. The strife between the Whigs and 
Tories, was never higher than at this time. After the peace, the mi- 
nisters, as leaders of the nation, no longer restrained by the tie of 
common danger, gave loose to their mutual animosity. 

The great duke of Marlborough was sacrificed, in consequence of 
these dissentions ; though every honour had been accorded to him, and 
the most munificent benefactions bestowed upon him, (£500,000 
having been voted at one time, to build the castle of Blenheim,) when 
his enemies came into the ministry, the queen was induced to dis- 
miss him from all his employments. The tories liad now supplant- 
ed the whigs in her favour, an event brought about by the preaching 
of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the tory principles of passive 
obedience, and who, on account of his trial, before the house of com- 
mons, excited a sympathy which he did not deserve. 

24. Anne died in her fiftieth year, after a short reign of 
twelve years, in 1714. She became a victim to an apojjlec- 
tic disorder, which was brought on, or hastened, by fatigue, 
and the agitation of her mind, in attending a prolonged ca- 
binet council, in which, her ministers fell into violent alterca- 
tions with one another. 

§ Anne was of the middle size, majestic, and well proportioned ; 
her face was round, her features regular, her complexion ruddy, and 
her hair a dark brown. 

GERMANY. 

25. Soon after the commencement of this period, 1612, 
Matthias was at the head of the German empire. lie 



GERMANY. 247 

attempted to reconcile the protestants to the catholics, but 
without success. The revolt of the Bohemians brought on a 
civil war, which lasted thirty years, in the course of which, 
Ferdinand, cousin to the emperor, was invested with the 
kingdom of Bohemia ; and Hungary, also, was soon afterwards 
conceded. Matthias, overwhelmed with grief, died before the 
conclusion of the war. 

§ An excellent rule of conduct for a prince, which the emperor de- 
livered to his successor, was the following : " If you wish your sub- 
jects to be happy under your government, do not let them feel the 
full force of your authority." 

26. Ferdinand 11. became emperor in 1619. During his 
reign, the ambition of Austria appeared, in her attempts to 
extinguish the protestant religion, to abridge the liberties of 
the empire, and to render the imperial diadem hereditary in 
her own house. But these attempts, especially in regard to 
the first two objects, were frustrated by the agency of Gusta- 
vus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who, at the head of the 
Evangelical Union, made rapid progress in Germany, till 
death stopped his career, in 1632. Austria, however, has 
usually held the imperial sceptre, and has long had an as- 
cendancy in the empire. 

§ Ferdinand has been styled by the papists, the Apostolical Empe- 
ror, on account of his hatred to the protestants. He was an unfeel- 
ing bigot, and scourge of the empire. 

27. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding, was elected king 
of the Romans, (so is the head of the Germanic body often 
called,) in 1637. The protestants in the empire, found the 
most active support during the former part of this reign, both 
from the SAvedes and the French ; and the emperor being 
forced to conclude the peace of Westphalia, 1648, these pow- 
ers dictated its terms. By this celebrated treaty, all disputes 
were settled between the contending princes of the empire, 
and the contending rehgions. 

§ The Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and 
acquired Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar, &c., and their sovereign, the 
dignity of prince of the empire ; the Palatine family was restored to 
its chief possessions ; the king of France made landgrave of Alsace, 
and an equal establishment of the three religions, viz. the Catholic, 
Lutheran, and Calvinistic. 

Ferdinand was a devoted Catholic. He experienced many cala- 
mities, but bore them with magnanimity. 

28. Leopold I., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was elect- 



248 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

ed emperor in 1657. His was a long reign, of nearly fifty 
years. Joseph I. succeeded him, 1705, and reigned till 1711. 
Both of these emperors were engaged in the war of the Span- 
ish succession, which commenced in 1700, on account of the 
claim advanced by Leopold, to the crown of Spain. The 
house of Bourbon was his competitor. The war was car- 
ried on by Austria, (England and Holland being her allies,) 
with success. Joseph, after having conquered Naples and Sar- 
dinia, forced the pope to acknowledge the Archduke Charles, 
as king of Spain. But, at length, the Austrian claimant 
being elected eniperoi*, the Spanish crown was rehnquished 
to the house of Bourbon, in the peace of 1713. In 1683, 
Yienna was besieged by an immense army of the Turks, 
but the place was reUeved by John Sobieski, king of Poland. 
Charles TI. was elected in 1711. His reign extends many 
years into the next period, but before the conclusion of the 
present, occurred his memorable war with the sultan Achmet 
III., in which he obtained many victories over the Turks, 
by his general, the renowned prince Eugene. 

SPAIN. 



29. The successor of Philip 11., on the throne of Spain, 
was his son, Philip III., 1598. From the commencement of 
this reign, Spain dechned in power, and notwithstanding her 
great sources of wealth, the national finances were exceeding- 
ly embarrassed. He had lost the seven United Provinces, 
whose independence was solemnly acknowledged, 1609. A 
most ill judged measure of his reign, was the expulsion of 
all the Moors, from his kingdom, who were its most industri- 
ous inhabitants. This, added to the depopulation occasioned 
by her American colonies, rendered Spain a mass of weak- 
ness. 

30. Under Phihp IV., who succeeded his father, in 1621, 
the national weakness and disorders increased, rather than 
diminished. Philip was implicitly ruled by his minister, 
Olivarez, a man of an indiscreet and insolent turn, who, 
while he encouraged the licentiousness of his sovereign, him- 
self wore the specious appearance of extraordinary piety. 

The reign of Philip was indeed one continued series of 
miscarriages and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil ; the 



SPAIN. 249 

French invaded Artois ; Catalonia revolted to France ; and 
Portugal, shaking off the yoke, recovered its independence. 

31. The revolution of Portugal, was effected with unwont- 
ed ease and celerity. It took place, 1640, and Portugal, af- 
ter having been an appendage of the kingdom of Spain for 
sixty years, asserted the rights of self government. The 
people, disgusted with the administration of OHvarez, were , 
prepared for a change. The duke of Bragan^a, descended 
from the ancient kings of Portugal, having command of the 
army at this time, and instigated by the ambition of hm 
dutchess, caused himself to be proclaimed king, at Lisbon. 
The Spanish guards were attacked and overcome, and the 
principal adherents of the government, were put to death by 
the populace. The whole was accomplished in two or three 
hours. The example of the capital was followed by all the 
considerable towns, and soon after, by all the foreign settle- 
ments. The duke of Braganza took the title of John IV. 

§ The events which occurred in the history of Portugal, previous- 
ly to the above revolution, are summarily as follows : 

Portugal was the ancient Lusitania, and was successively subject 
to the Siievi, the Goths, and the Moors. 

In the early part of the twelfth century, Henry of Burgundy, 
grandson to Robert I., of France, rendered assistance to Alphonso, 
ia his wars against the Moors, and having distinguished himself by 
great bravery, Alphonso bestowed on him his natural daughter 
Theresa, in marriage, and also created him count of that part of 
Portugal, where Oporto was situated, from which place, formerly 
called Portus Calle, the whole country took its name. By the valour 
of Henry, the country regained its liberty, and he governed it with 
the title of count. 

His son, Alphonso Henriquez, having obtained a decisive victory 
over five Moorish kings, was proclaimed king, by the soldiers. Seve- 
ral princes succeeded him, whose reigns deserve no particular notice. 
On the death of Ferdinand I., in 1383, the states gave the crown to 
his natural brother, John I., surnamed the Bastard, who was equally 
politic and enterprising, and in whose reign, the Portuguese first 
projected discoveries in the western ocean. 

In the reign of his great grandson, John II., who was a prince of 
profound sagacity and extensive views, the Portuguese made con- 
quests in the interior of Africa, and discovered, under Diaz, the Cape 
of Good Hope. That cape was doubled in 1497, for the first time, by 
Vasco de Gama, who thence sailed for the East Indies. 

Emanuel, cousin of John, ascending the Portuguese throne, in 
1495, adopted the plan of his predecessors, and sent out a fleet. It 
was with this fleet, that Gama doubled the cape as above mentioned; 
others of the king's vessels discovered Brazil, in 1501. 



250 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

These princes had the merit of exciting that spirit of discovery 
which led to many subsequent improvements of navigation and 
commerce. Their discoveries on the coast of Africa, led to the voy- 
age of Columbus, and the discovery of America. They also estab- 
lished valuable colonies in Africa and America, and an extensive 
empire in India. The reign of Emanuel, was the most glorious in 
the annals of Portugal. He was a great and wise prince, and ban- 
ished poverty and distress from his dominions. 

John III., the son of Emanuel, admitted the new founded order 
of the Jesuits, which has since been a powerful engine of despotism 
and superstition. He encouraged, if he did not establish, the Inqui- 
sition in Portugal. 

Sebastian, his grandson, fanatically led an army against the Moors, 
in Africa, where he and most of his army perished in battle. Sebas- 
tian, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his uncle, cardinal Henry, 
in 1578, who, also dying without children, Philip II., king of Spain, 
obtained the crown, in right of his mother, 1580. After sixty years 
of subjection to Spain, the Portuguese, as already related, threw off 
the Spanish yoke, and became independent, under the duke of Bra- 
ganza, the legal heir of the throne. 

32. Cliarles II., succeeded his father, Philip lY., on the 
throne of Spain, in 1665. In order to frustrate the schemes 
of the kings of England and France, and of the states of 
Holland, he left his dominions to Philip, duke of Anjou, 
second son of Louis, dauphin of France. 

§ This prince is said to have been debilitated, both in body and 
in mind, by certain drugs which his mother administered to him in 
his chocolate. To so unnatural an act, she was led, in consequence 
of his refusal to accept of her assistance as regent. Certain it is, 
that active before, he lost, in the course of a few weeks, his wonted 
spirits ; and his future imbecility, proved highly detrimental to the 
interests of his kingdom. 

33. The duke of Anjou, uuder the title of Philip V., the 
first Spanish monarch of the house of Bourbon, ascended the 
throne in 1700. In 1701, nearly all Europe united against 
France and Spain, and a useless and bloody war was carried 
on till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Gibraltar was lost to 
Spain, in the course of this war. 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

34. The most splendid period in the history of Turkey, 
was that which immediately preceded the present. The spirit 
of mihtary enterprise was now considerably abated ; though 
the power of the empire continued undiminished, except in 



TURKISH EMPIRE. 251 

its naval force. The latter never wholly recovered from the 
effects of the fatal battle of Lepanto. 

The present period embraces the reigns of nine sultans, 
and a part of the reign of another. They were generally at 
war with the neighbouring powers ; Persia on the one side, 
Venice, Hungary, and Austria, on the other. 

§ During the former period, the wars of the Turks with the Vene- 
tians, had been extremely frequent and bloody. That small, but 
enterprising and martial republic, had, during one hundred and fifty 
years, restrained the Ottoman power, and prevented it, most proba- 
bly, from overspreading a great part of Europe. The spirit of hos- 
tility continued through the present period, and broke out occasion- 
ally into fierce fightings. The Turks were for a long time superior 
to the Christian powers of JEurope in military tactics, on account of 
having an order of men exclusively devoted to the profession of 
arms, and also on account of their frequent use of artillery. 

Achmet I., made war with Persia and Hungary, but with little 
success. During his reign, in 1611, Constantinople was afl^icted with 
a dreadful plague, of which more than 200,000 persons died. 

Othman II., invaded Poland, but was forced to make peace after 
having lost 80,000 men. In 1622, he was strangled by the Janizaries, 
whom he intended to disband. 

Amurath IV., tarnished a victory which he had obtained in the 
capture of Bagdad, by the barbarous slaughter of 30,000 Persians, 
who had laid down their arms, as well as of all the inhabitants. 

Mahomet IV. made a conspicuous figure in the annals of Europe, 
from the middle, till towards the close of the seventeenth century. 
Under him, the Turks again became formidable to Europe, and took 
Candia from the Venetians, and besieged the capital of Austria. 
The siege of Candia is one of the most remarkable of modern times. 
Candia was the ancient Crete, and an emporium for commerce. 
The Turks had long desired to take possession of it, and at length, 
in 1645, effected a landing on it, with 60,000 men. After several 
towns had surrendered, Candia, the capital, was invested. This 
siege continued twenty-five years. For the last two years, the 
Turks put forth every effort, inasmuch as the delay was mortifying 
to their pride, and disappointed their ambitious hopes. After the 
loss of 30,000 lives, on the part of the Venetians and their allies, and 
118,000 on the part of the besiegers, in the space of two years and 
four months, the city surrendered on honourable terms, in 1670. It 
is said the besiegers made against it, fifty-six assaults and ninety-six 
sallies ; and that the Venetians discharged 276,743 cannon balls, 
48,119 bombs, and consumed 50,317 barrels of powder. The Turks 
have ever since held possession of the island. 

In the siege of the capital of Austria, in 1683, John Sobieski, 
king of Poland, particularly distinguished himself. His assistance 
was requested by the emperor of Germany, and readily bestowed. 
Through his efforts, Austria seems to have been saved from destruc- 



252 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

tion, and the Ottoman power prevented from effecting an establish- 
ment in the heart of Europe — a service which Austria has since ill 
requited. Sobieski, whose army, when joined by the Austrians, did 
not exceed 50,000 men, advanced to the environs of Vienna, and 
fought one of the most memorable battles of the age. An army of 
nearly 200,000 Turks, brave and well disciplined, was entirely de- 
feated by the Pole, who lost only 600 men. The victors secured the 
great Ottoman standard, 180 pieces of cannon, and the immense 
treasures found in the camp of the enemy. The war continued 
after that defeat, in which the Turks were the greatest sufferers. 
The imperialists, however, v/ere weary of it ; but neither party 
could be speedily brought to an accommodation, on account of the 
intrigues of the French king, who wished to exhaust the resources 
of the house of Austria. 

Under Solyman 11., the Turks were almost constantly defeated by 
the imperialists. Mustapha II., was severely beaten in the famous 
battle of Zenta, in Hungary, by prince Eugene, in 1697; and, in 
1699, concluded a peace at Carlowitz, by which he was forced to 
cede Transylvania, Kaminiek, the Morea, and Azof. 

Under Achmet III., in 1715, the Ottoman court declared war 
against the Venetians, and recovered the Morea. At the same time, 
war was waged against Austria, but the most disastrous effects to 
the Turks, took place from this renewal of the contention. Prince 
Eugene defeated a powerful army, in the battle of Peterwaradin, 
and took Temeswar, in 1716. The next year, the strong town of 
Belgrade surrendered to his again victorious arms. The disadvan- 
tageous peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, followed these defeats. And 
the Ottoman, formerly so terrible in arms, was obUged to yield the 
palm of military skill, if not valour, to the disciphned legions of 
Christendom. 

BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 

35. Our own country, is intended by the British Colo- 
nies in America. During the present period, and part of 
the following, the people inhabiting, chiefly, the south-eastern 
portion of North America, were known by the above appella- 
tion. 

These colonies were settlements made principally by the 
English, though some of them derived their origin from ad- 
ventures set on foot by ot.lier European nations. They were 
all, however, included within the EngHsh patent, and claimed 
by the English crown. 

36. It was more than a century, from the discovery of the 
northern portion of the American continent, by Cabot, before 
the Enghsh made any effectual attempts to colonize the 



BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 253 

country. The first grant from the crown, under which set- 
dements were actually made in North America, was dated 
April 10, 1606. James I., by his letters patent, granted an 
exclusive right or privilege to two companies, called the Lon- 
don and Plymouth companies, by which they were autho- 
rized to possess the lands in America, lying between the thirty- 
fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude ; the southern 
part, called South Virginia, to the London, and the northern, 
called North Virginia, to the Plymouth company. Before 
the present patents, however, a project to sefetle the country 
was undertaken by Sir Walter Raleigh, who, under a com- 
mission from Elizabeth, in 1584, had arrived in this portion 
of Nortb America, which, upon his flattering account of it, 
was called Virginia, in compliment to the queen's virgin 
majesty. But this project, as well as two that followed it, 
wholly failed. 

Under the king's patent, the London company sent Cap- 
tain Christopher Newpo'1 to Virginia, December 20th, 1606, 
with a colony of one hundred and five persons, to commence 
a settlement on the island Roanoke, now in North Carolina. 
By stress of weather, however, they were driven north of 
their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake Bay. 
Here, up a river which Jiey called James river, on a beautiful 
peninsula, they commenced, in May, 1607, the settlement of 
Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement in the 
United States. 

37. Seven years afterwards, 1614, a colony of Dutch com- 
menced a settlement on the present island of New- York, 
which had been discovered in the year 1609, by Henry Hud- 
son,' an Englishman in the service of Holland. The Eng- 
lish government claimed a prior right to the country, by vir- 
tue of Cabot's discovery; but the first settlers retained pos- 
session, until 1664, when it was surrendered to an armament 
fitted out by Charles II., and received its name from his bro- 
ther, the duke of York. It had been previously called New- 
Amsterdam. The Dutch had built a fort here, and one also 
at Albany. 

38. The same year in wb^ch the Dutch settled on the 
Hudson, Captain John Smith, ranged the coast, from Penobs- 
cot to Cape Cod. King Charles, to whom a map of the 
country v/as presented, named it New-England, instead of 

22 



254 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

North Yirginia. Sixteen years from this, December 22, 
1620, a colony of puritans landed at Plymouth, in Massa> 
chusetts, and began the first permanent settlement in New- 
England. These colonists were originally from England, 
but had resided several years in Holland, on account of the 
religious intolerance which prevailed in their native country. 
The colony of Plymouth was afterwards connected with 
another colony in New-England, called Massachusetts Bay, 
which was founded in 1628. 

39. In 1623,, a number of persons from England, arrived 
in the river Piscataqua, and began two settlements ; one at 
the mouth, at a place called Little Harbour, the other at a 
place now called Dover. These were the first settlements in 
New-Hampshire. 

40. The next settlement in the order of time, seems to be 
that which was made by some bodies of the Dutch and 
Danes, about the year 1625, in New- Jersey. This was fol- 
lowed by the colonization of Delaware, in 1627, by the 
Swedes. 

41. In 1637, Charles I. granted a patent to Lord Balti- 
more, conveying to him a tract of country, on the Chesapeak 
Bay, which, in honour of Henrietta Maria, daughter of the 
French king, he named Maryland. The next year, Balti- 
more appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the 
province, who, with about two hundred planters, chiefl}^ Ro- 
man catholics, began a settlement, in 1634, near the mouth 
of the Potomac, on the northern side. 

42. In 1633, the first house was erected in Connecticut. 
This was a trading house built by some Plymouth adven- 
turers, who transported the materials up Connecticut river. 
Two years from this, 1635, about sixty men, women and 
children, from Newtown and Watertown, in Massachusetts, 
commenced their journey through the wilderness to Connec- 
ticut river. By these people, Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hart- 
ford, were settled. 

43. The settlement of Rhode Island, is dated from the 
rear 1636, an event occasioned by the banishment of Roger 
Williams from Massachusetts, on account of his religious 
opinions. He removed with his family to Mooshawic, and 
began a plantation, which, on account of the Divine kind- 

3, he called Providence. 



BRITISH COLONIES. 255 

44. The colony of New-Haven, was formed in 1638, in 
consequence of the English having occasion to visit the ter- 
ritory, in an expedition against the Pequots. This colony 
eventually united with that of Connecticut. 

45. In 1663, some of the Virginia settlers laid the foun- 
dation of North Carolina, which was followed by the settle- 
ment of South Carolina, in 1670. The Carolinas were so 
called in lionour of Charles IX., king of France, under whose, 
patronage the coast had been discovered, in 1563. 

46. In Pennsylvania, a small body of Swedes had plant 
ted themselves, at an early period. Their settlement in 
creased slowly, until the arrival of William Penn, in 1681; 
with a numerous company of (Quakers, whom religious per- 
secution drove across the Atlantic. Penn had acquired a 
grant of the territory now constituting the state, in conside- 
ration of the debts due from the crown, for services perform- 
ed by his father, admiral Penn. 

47. The last settled of the original thirteen states, was 
Georgia, founded in 1732, by General Oglethorpe. This 
comes within our next succeeding period. At first, Georgia, 
and even the Floiidas, were covered by the Charter, as it was 
afterwards confirmed and enlarged, which conveyed Carolina 
to its proprietors. 

48. The tlu-ee eldest of the American states, it will be per- 
ceived above, are Virginia, New-York, and Massachusetts. 
These have hitherto been the most important and inlluential 
in the confederacy. Others, however, from their numbers, 
are beginning to acquire their just consideration. 

49. The causes of the settlement of the American states, 
were various. Some were made on mercenary views, the 
usual principle of colonization, for the particular benefits of 
the proprietors. This was the case with Virginia. The im- 
mediate purpose of the settlement of New-York, was com- 
merce. The Dutch were then particularly distinguished for 
their commercial and enterprising spirit. Massachusetts, and 
New-England generally, were planted principally to enjoy, 
in an unrestricted manner, the institutions of religion. 

50. In the original foundation of three of the states, viz., 
Rhode Island, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the free tolera- 
tion of religion was recognized, and tliese were the first civil 
communities which acted on a principle that now seems to 



256 MOrERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX, 

be fafi gainiD^ the popular consent. In the other colonies, 
there was a f^ ^ree ol intolerance on the subject of religion^ 
the fault of the age ; and yet they laid the foundations of a 
civil community, the freest and l)est which the world had 
hitherto seen. In New-England, particularly, they wished 
to enjoy their reiif^ion in peace ; and in shutting out others, 
whose religious opinions differed from their own, they seera 
to have justified themselves on the principle of self defence, 
with a view to be delivered, ever afterwards, from evils simi- 
lar to those from which they had recently escaped. As, how- 
ever, it must be impossible to prevent differences of opiniop. 
on the subject of religion, a civil community would be wise 
in providing for such a state of things, by suitable and tole- 
rant regulations. 

51. Many of the fiist settlers of the country, were men 
of talents and liberal caltiue ; and a wilderness has never 
been planted by a body of people, who were more soHcitous 
for the interests of learning, and general education. Next, 
after the establishment of the Gospel, their greatest object 
was to multiply schools and higher seminaries of learning. 
Indeed, the colonists possessed excellent traits. Their mo- 
rahty and piety, their spirit of enteiprise and habits of indus- 
try, their love of liberty, and attention to education, were un- 
paralleled in the history of similar efforts. They were not 
perfect men, but they were the best and the noblest that ever 
founded an empire. These remarks are intended particular- 
ly for New-England, though they have a degree of applica- 
tion to all the American states. 

52. The colonists purchased their lands of the Indians ; 
and notwithstanding what has been often asserted, respecting 
the frauds that were practised, there is httle reason to question 
the purity of motive, and the good faith of those who were 
engaged in these transactions. 

53. The settlers in some of the colonies, experienced at 
first but little trouble from the Indians, for many years. This 
was the case particularly with Massachusetts and Pennsylva- 
nia. In others, they were molested from this quarter, at a 
very early period. Connecticut, and particularly Virginia, 
were obliged, soon after their settlement, to make war against 
the savages, in self-defence. And all the colonies, sooner or 
later, suffered in various ways, and especially by contentions 



BRITISH COLONIES. 257 

with the natives. It is not to be denied, that in the end, 
wrong was sometimes done to these miserable tribes. Their 
ferocity and faithlessness were, occasionally, met with the 
sternest inflictions of vengeance on the part of the whites. 

Respecting the colonists as a body, during the present pe- 
riod, it may be remarked, in a very general way, that they 
struggled long with all the hardships, difficulties, and priva- 
tions incident to new establishments among savages ; that 
they displayed a heroism and constancy, such as have rarely 
been witnessed among men, and though tempted to believe, 
in some instances, that their undertaking would never suc- 
ceed, yet that their virtues finally overcame every obstacle, 
and they found themselves before the conclusion of this pe- 
riod, increasing in wealth and population. 

It may be added, that the colonists were often involved in 
the wars of the mother country, with other powers ; that a 
few of their wars with the Indians, affected several of the 
states at a time, and that a consideration of their common 
exposure, led to a general intercourse with one another, and 
particularly to the union which was formed between the New- 
England colonies, in 1 643 ; a union which lasted more than 
forty years, or until their charters were revoked, and which 
furnished the example of that nobler confederacy which has 
since taken place, of all the American states. In general, 
however, it is with the individual colonies that we are mostly 
concerned in the history of this period, but the hmits of our 
work will admit only of a very few details, in regard to one 
or two of the states. 

§ Two years after the settlement of Connecticut, occiuTed the war 
with the Peqnots, a tribe of Indians, whose principal residence was 
on a hill in the present town of Groton. These savages had pre- 
viously made depredations on the infant settlement, and killed seve- 
ral individuals, and carried others away captive. In this perilous 
state of affairs, a court, convened at Hartford, determined on war. 
Ninety men, nearly half the fencible men of the colony, were or- 
dered to be raised. Forty-two from Hartford, thirty from Windsor, 
and eigliteen from Wethersfield. These troops, together with seventy 
River and JMohegan Indians, were commanded by Captain Mason, 
who, saihng down th.e river, surprised Mystic, one of the principal 
forts of the enemy, in the present town of Stonington. 

Before the savages could get themselves in readiness, the troops* 
instantly pressed forward and fired. The destruction soon became; 
terrible." but the Indians rallied at length, and made a desperate re- 

22* 



258 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

sistance. All, however, was in vain. Upon an order to burn thenij 
the work of destruction was completed. Seventy wigwams were in 
ruins, and between 500 and 600 Indians, lay bleeding on the ground, 
or smouldering in ashes. With the assistance of a detachment of 
nearly two hundred men from Massachusetts and Plymouth, the 
whites pursued the rest of the tribe, who fled towards the Hudson, 
and, defeating them in another terrible battle, in a great swamp, in 
Fairfield, the power of the Pequot nation, was entirely prostrated. 

In Virginia, the colonists were soon involved in contests with the 
Indians. In addition, they suffered severely by the scarcity ajid 
badness of provisions — the consequence of which was, that diseases 
swept off one half of their number, in a few months. In the latter 
part of the year 1609, Captain Smith, whose romantic story has been 
so often told, and whose name was a defence of the settlers, and a tei 
ror to the Indians, returned to England. Soon after his departure 
the colonists were reduced to the greatest extremities, having had a 
company of thirty men slain by the Indians, and their provisions 
wasted on the occasion. A most distressing famine ensued, the ef- 
fect of which was the reduction, in six months, of the colonists, from 
nearly five hundred to sixty. The remainder embarked for their 
native home ; but being met by a new company of adventurers, with 
a large supply of provisions, they were induced to return, and try 
the fortunes of a wilderness once more. For a number of years, 
it was only by the arrival of new comers, that the colony was pre- 
served from extinction. At last it began to prosper, from the date 
of Sir William Berkeley's administration, 1638, which lasted nearly 
forty years. Eefore the conclusion of this period, however, the 
colony experienced the evils of a terrible insurrection, known by 
the name of Bacon's rebellion, which terminated only with the death 
of its mover. 

54. The principal events which relate to the colonies, as a 
body, or to the greater part of them, during the present pe- 
riod, were Philip's war, in 1675 and 1676, which was the 
most general and destructive war with the Indians, in which 
the colonics were ever involved — the oppressive measures re- 
lating to the colonies under the Stuart family, who attempted 
the destruction of their charters and liberties — and the wars 
occasioned by the hostihties into which tlie mother country 
entered with other European powers, usually called king 
William's war, and queen Anne's war; the former com- 
mencing in 1690, and continuing to 1697, and the latter com- 
mencing in 1702, and ending in 1713. 

§ Philip's war was carried on by a king or sachem of that 
name, who was at the head of the Wampanoags, and whose re- 
sidence was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. This distinguished 
warrior, designing to exterminate the whites, formed a most exten- 
sive combination of the Indians. The greatest battle during this 



RUSSIA. 259 

contest, is known by the name of the Swamp Fight, December, 1675, 
in the Narraganset country, at the Indian fortress, situated in a large 
swamp. The English, who were commanded by Josiah Winslow, 
governor of Plymouth, obtained a great victory, but dearly bought, 
with the loss of two hundred and thirty men, killed and wounded. 
The Indians lost more than four times this number, besides many 
women and children. Though their power was greatly broken by 
this defeat, they continued their depredations and massacres, until 
the death of their great warrior, in 1676, and in some parts of New- 
England, two years later. This was a melancholy period in the an- 
nals of the country, during which, six hundred men, the flower of 
its strength, had fallen ; twelve or thirteen towns had been destroyed, 
and six hundred dwelling houses consumed— a terrible destruction, 
out of a population not exceeding 60,000, 

I'he oppressive measures, under the Stuart family, were owing, 
in part, to the tyrannical disposition of the princes of that family, 
and, in part, to the sinister attempts of certain men, who, having 
visited the colonies, became hostile to them, and infused their preju- 
dices into the king and his ministry. Under this baleful influence, 
the colonies were required to surrender their charters — a demand 
which was complied with, except in the case of Connecticut. The 
duration of this state of things, however, was short ; the revolution 
occurring in England, in 1688, when William and Mary were placed 
on the throne. 

From this time, the colonies, though unmolested by the mother 
country, in regard to their liberties, si-^ffered by means of her wars 
with the French, who employed the savages as their auxiliaries. 
This was a long period of woe and desolation, lasting from 1688 to 
1713, with an intermission of only four or five years. 

RUSSIA. 

55. The history of Russia i both obscure and nnimpor- 
tant, until the time of Peter I., surnamed the Great, who as- 
cended the throne in 1G89. Russia, then raised from bar- 
barism and ignorance, was brought into notice with the civil- 
ized world ; and, by successiv^e advancements, has attained to 
a rank, in power and influence, second to no other state in 
Europe. To Peter, that country owes all its greatness. 

§ In regard to the early history of Russia, it is only ascertained, 
that in the fourth century, the country was possessed by several 
different tribes. In the tenth century, it is said to have received the 
light of Christianity. In the fifteenth century, John Basilowitz re- 
deemed the empire from its subjection to the Tartars, and united the 
greater part of the country under one monarchy. The sovereigns 
of Russia, until Ivan Basilowitz IV., in the sixteenth century, bore 
the title Wenike Knez, " Great Prince," but he added that of czar, 
which, in the Sclavonican language, signifies king. Peter the Great, 



260 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

assumed the title of emperor. It was not till the end of the six- 
teenth century, that Siberia was added to the empire, which, to that 
time, was bounded by the limits of Europe. 

The predecessors of Peter, maintained considerable splendour, as 
sovereigns; but their dominions were uncultivated, and their sub- 
jects barbarians. Alexis Michaelowitz, father of Peter, was the first 
who published a code of laws. 

Peter became master of the empire, by setting aside a weak elder 
brother, and banishing a factious sister, who had seized the govern- 
ment. His youth was spent in ignorance and debauchery ; but his 
new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to 
the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. 

56. The principal events of his reign, were, his war with 
the Turks, and taking of Azof, in 1696 — his sending an 
embassy into Holland, which he accompanied in disguise, 
in order to learn the art of ship building — his destruction of 
the Strelitzes, a body of troops, much resembhng the Janiza- 
ries of Turkey — his abolition of tiie patriarchate of Moscow, 
which rivalled the authority of the czars — the several de- 
feats he experienced in a war with Charles XII. of Sweden — 
his signal victory over that monarch, in the battle of Pul- 
towa — his building of Petersburgh — and, finally, his institu- 
tion of a numerous infantry, and powerful army. 

§ Having gained the little knowledge he possessed from foreigners, 
he resolved to travel in search of more. Appointing De Fort, an 
able Genevese, his ambap:?ador, he travelled as a private person in 
his suite, through Germany to Holland, and v/hen he arrived at 
Amsterdam, engaged himself as a workman in the dock yard, under 
the name of Peter Michaelof. Here was exhibited the astonishing 
spectacle of a mighty prince, at the age of twenty-five, quitting the 
luxury of a court, labouring with his own hands, at a toilsome me- 
chanic art, fed and clad like the rest of his fellow-workmen, and 
obeying the orders of his temporary master I His occupation did 
not prevent him from attending the lectures on anatomy, surgery, 
mechanics, and other branches of practical philosophy, cultivated in 
Holland. From Holland he passed to England, where he was simi- 
larly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement. 
At the end of sixteen months, he returned to Moscow, laden with 
knowledge, and the fruits of experience, which he employed for the 
benefit of his own subjects. 

Charles the XII. was, at this time, sweeping all before him. He 
had beaten the czar, in a number of engagements; and, suddenly 
breaking off a negociation, he entered Ptussia with 45,000 men, with 
the design of dictating peace at Moscow. He would probably have 
accomplished his object, had he not been induced, by a treacherous 
promise of aid from the Cossacs, to march through the Ukraine, in 
tile midst of winter. Here Peter seized his opportunity, when the 



SWEDEN. 261 

enemy's army was wasted by fatigue and famine, and meeting 
Charles, at Pultowa, he gave him battle, killing 9000 of the Swedes, 
and taking 14,000 prisoners. 

Peter died in 1725. His usefulness, as a sovereigUj is un- 
questioned ; yet, as a man, he is justly obnoxious to the 
charge of being ferocious, impatient, passionate, and prodigal 
of the lives of his subjects. 

SWEDEN. 

57. The history of Sweden is unimportant, until the re- 
volution of 1523, which placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne, 
who was followed by eight sovereigns to the time of Charles 
XII., in 1697. The crown was elective till 1544, when 
Gustavus persuaded the states to render it hereditary in his 
family. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, had been united 
into one kingdom, from the time of Margaret of Denmark, 
in 1389, to the time of Gustavus. The last king (Christian 
II.) of the united countries, was so tyrannical, that Gustavus 
was induced to take up arms against him, and deliver his 
subjugated countrymen. He introduced Lutheranism into 
his states, administered the government with great firmness 
and wisdom ; and, considering the age in which he lived, was 
one of tlie most extraordinary of men. 

Two at least of his successors to the period of Charles 
XII., were eminent sovereigns, viz. Gustavus Adolphus, sur- 
named the Great, and Christiana. Gustavus was illustrious 
as a hero, and Christiana was enthusiastically devoted to 
hterature, and distinguished for her patronage of learned 
men. 

§ Sweden was the eastern part of the ancient Scandinavia, and, 
together with Denmark, was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a colony 
of the Gomerians. From thisconntry came the Goths, the Gepidce, 
the Hernli, and the Lombards. The Swedish monarchy is very an- 
cient ; but the history of its earlier sovereigns is too uncertain, to 
satisfy the sober enquirer. Eric IX., in the twelfth century, is the 
first monarch whose reign approximates to chronological truth. 
There appear to have been nine sovereigns between him and 
Gustavus Vasa. 

During the oppressive reign of Christian II., Gustavus Vasa was 
sent as an hostage into Denmark, in 1518, whence he made his 
escape on hearing of the massacre at Stockhold of ninety-four 
senators, among whom his father perished. For a while he con- 
cealed himself in Dalecarlia ; at length he entered into a small town, 



262 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

on a day when a fair was held, harangued the country people, snd 
with their assistance took possession of the fortress, and put the 
Danish commander to death. 

From this moment his life became a scene of triumphs. Follow- 
ed by his brave Dalecarlians, he besieged Stockholm ; and it hap- 
pening, when the Danes came to relieve that city, that a sudden 
frost detained their ships at a great distance from the port, Gusta- 
vus's soldiers advanced on the ice and set fire to them. This victory 
opened the gates of Stockholm, and he was proclaimed king. 

Gustavus Adolphus began to reign in 1611. He became a hero 
in early li^, having in his twelfth year been encircled M'ith the 
laurels of victory. At the age of eighteen he was successfully 
prosecuting a war with Denmark, which he concluded in 1613 
with an advantageous peace. He was equally successful in his 
wars with the Poles and Russians, from whom he took many towns. 
In his war with the [mperialists, he defeated their forces in the battle 
of Leipsic, in 1631, and afterwards in that of Lutzen; but in the 
latter he lost his life. 

Christiana, in 1632, succeeded her father Adolphus when only 
seven years of age, and during her reign, Sweden preserved its 
ascendency in the affairs of Germany. She ruled the kingdom with 
great wisdom and prudence, till 1654, when she resigned her crown 
to her cousin, Charles Gustavus. She was so eager to quit Sweden, 
and to reach a land more congenial to the cultivation of science, 
that when she arrived at a small brook, which separates that country 
from Denmark, she alighted from her carriage, and leaped over the 
stream: "At length," said she, "lam free, and out of Sweden, 
whither I hope never to return." She visited Paris, where unbound- 
ed homage was paid to her genius, but where her manners gave of- 
fence to the court for want of decency and conformity to rules. 
Rome, however, became the place of her residence, where she eiiv- 
braced the Catholic religion, and where she died. 

58. Charles XII. succeeded, in 1697, at the age of fifteen 
years. He was a competitor of Peter the Great, and divided 
with him the admiration of Europe. He has been ranked 
with the greatest conquerors of antiquity, on account of his 
heroism of cliaracter and, extraordinary achievements. But 
Charles was rather a singular, than a great man. His suc- 
cess as a warrior, for a time, alarmed and agitated Europe, 
Soon after his accession, his dominions were attacked on 
three sides, by Russia, Poland, and Denmark, and he, al- 
though then only a boy of seventeen years, successively took 
the field against these powers, and signally defeated theiiL 
Poland he humbled in the dust. A negociation having been 
begun by the czar, Charles abruptly terminated it, and de- 
clared that he would negociate only at Moscow. The rigour 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 263 

of a Russian winter, prepared his army for the defeat, which 
it so signally expeiienced at Pultowa. After this battle, he 
fled into Turkey, where his conduct seemed to be that of a 
maniac, rather than of a man in his senses. 

§ The war with Denmark he despatched in six weeks. The 
Danish king purchased the safety of his capital and kingdom, by 
making full indemnity to the duke of Holstein, whose terdtorv he 
bad attempted to wrest from him. 

The Swedish monarch then hastened into Ingria, which the czar 
had altacKed, and at the battle of Narva, with eight thousand men 
he defeated an army of eighty thousand Russians, of whom he took 
thirty thousand prisoners. 

In his chastisement of Poland, he satisfied the dictates of the 
amplest revenge He reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated 
mto the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw 
and Cracow. He then, by means of the assembled states, declared 
the Polish Augustus deposed, and procured Stanislaus, his own de- 
pendent, to be elected sovereign of Poland 

When Charles fled into Turkey, he had only eighteen hundred 
men. He still hoped to dethrone the czar, by engaaing the Otto- 
man power against him. After many efforts the Sultan was induced 
to send two hundred thousand soldiers against the Russians But 
upon the capitulation of Peter's army, peace having been made 
Charles was disappointed, and vented his rage against the Turk' 
He had been hospitably entertained more than three years but his 
arrogance becoming insufferable, he was ordered to quit the Turkish 
dominions. This order he refused to obey, and proceeded immedi- 
ately to fortify his camp. With only three hundred men, he de- 
fended himself for some time, against an army of twenty thousand 
Turks, and only yielded, when he was taken by the legs and arms 
and dragged to the tent of the bashaw. ' 



Distinguished Characters in Period IX. 



1. 



Tycho Brahe, a Dane, celebrated as an astronomer. 

2. Cervantes, a Spaniard, the celebrated author of Don 
Quixote. 

3. Shakspeare, the greatest of dramatic poets. 

4. Galileo, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in 
mathematics and astronomy. 

6. Raleigh, an eminent navigator and man of letters. 

6. Bacon, an English philosopher and universal genius. 

7. Kepler, a German astronomer. 

8. Grotius, a Dutch writer, of various and profound leam- 

9. Des Cartes, a famous French philosopher. 



264 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

10. Gassendi, a Frenchman, distinguished as an astrono- 
mer. 

1 1. Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and theologian. 

12. Milton, the greatest of epic poets among the moderns. 

13. Corneilie, the prince of the French dramatic poets. 

14. Boyle, an Enghshman, distinguished in natural philo- 
sophy, 

15. Dryden, an eminent English poet. 

16. Locke, the greatest among the English metaphysi- 
cians. 

17. Leibnitz, an acute German philosopher and mathemn- 
tician. 

§ 1. TychoBrahe, descended from an illiistrions Swedish family, was 
born in Denmark, 1546. He was sent by his father to Copenhagen, 
for the purpose of studying rhetoric and philosophy ; but the great 
eclipse of the sun on the 2ist of Augnst, 1562, engaged him to study 
astronomy. With this science he was excessively delighted. He 
often spent whole nights with a small celestial globe in his hands, in 
learning the names of the stars, and in the acquisition of a science, 
which he called divine. He was honoured by the noble and learned 
of his age, and patronized by his sovereign, for a time; but the ma- 
lice of his enemies drove him from his country, and he found an 
asylum in Prague, where he died, in 1601. 

I-t is said, that his learning made him superstitious, and his philo- 
sophy irritable, to such a degree, that in a philosophical dispute with 
some person, the argument rose to such a pitch of personal violence, 
that he lost his nose. This he supplied by a gold and silver one, 
admirably constructed. 

The best of his works are, the Rodolphine Tables, and the Histo- 
ria Ccelestis. He opposed the Copernican system, which is a suffi- 
cient proof of the unsoundness of his judgment. 

2. Cervantes, who is better known by this name than by his sur- 
name, Saavedra, was born at Madrid, 1549. He led a life of hard- 
ship and poverty. Before he became an author, he engaged in the 
military profession, and five years and an half he endured all the 
horrors of an Algerine captivity. After his release and return to 
Spain, he began to write plays for his maintenance, but though his 
pieces were acted with universal applause, he pined in poverty, and 
at last, found himself in a prison. In his confinement, he began his 
immortal work Don Quixote, which was not finished till the ex- 
piration of several years. This work is read and admired in every 
known language ; but though popular from the beginning, it pro- 
duced him neither notice nor bread. He was, however, serene 
amidst his wretchedness. 

In Don Quixote, Cervantes appears the purest of all humourists, 
gentle, genial, and kind. 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 265 

3, Shakspeare, (William) was born of a respectable family, at-"^' 
Stratford-on-Avon, April, 1546. Few events of his life have been 
recorded, while scores of volumes have been written on his poetry, 
and on the character of his genius. He was designed to carry on 
the trade of his father, which was that of a wool dealer, and with 
that view, he was early taken from school. He married at the age 
of seventeen, and soon became the father of a family. An un- 
fortunate and criminal act, (deer stealing,) which he committed, 
in connexion with some thoughtless companions, was the means of 
driving him to London. 

Here, a new scene opened upon him, and he soon laid the foun- 
dation of a fame, which is unequalled in the history of human genius. 
He first enlisted among the players, and became an actor on the stage. 
It is not known that he excelled in the profession of an actor ; the 
coiiirary is rather inferred. But from acting, he passed to the wri- 
ting of plays, which, at first, he adapted to the lower classes ; but 
when his performances had gained the favour of the queen and 
her court, he aimed at more elaborate compositions. Having by the 
productions of his pen, and by the management of the play-house, 
acquired a competent fortune, he retired to his native town, where 
he lived respected and beloved by his neighbours. Shakspeare died 
23d April, 1516, in the fifty-third year of his age. 

Several relics of the immortal bard, are still preserved in the house 
where he was born, the front of which is now occupied as a meat- 
shop. Among the articles are, his sitting-chair, a table on which 
he wrote, a Spanish card and dice-box, presented to the poet by 
the prince of Castile, part of a Spanish match-lock, the remains of 
the piece with which he shot the deer in Charlicote Park, a table-co- 
ver, a present from good Queen Bess, &c. &c. This is a place, which 
is visited by thousands, of all ranks, conditions, and countries, in 
homage to the genius which was there first brought to light. 

Of Shakspeare, it has been said, almost in the language of adora^, 
lion, " that he is the greatest of poets and of men— that he went be- 
yond all men, and stands in the array of human intellect, like the 
sun in the system, single and unapproachable." But eulogy has 
been exhausted on him. After all, it is melancholy to reflect, that 
amidst his great and incomparable beauties, there are many moral 
blemishes_and defects. 

4. GaUleo made discoveries in astronomy, that were too astonish- 
ing, and too oppose to the doctrines of Aristotle, to escape thecen- ■ 
sure of the philosophers of the age ; and no sooner was it known, 
that he had embraced the Copernican system, than he was sum- 
moned before the Inquisition. Into its terrible dungeons was this 
illustrious man twice thrown, where, in the whole, he spent three or 
four miserable years, and this for embracing opinions then deemed 
so false in philosophy, and so heretical and contrary to the word of 
God. 

Among the discoveries that have rendered the name of Galileo 
immortal, are his observation of the inequalities on the surface of 
the moon, and his knowledge of her vibration, his calculation of the 

23 



266 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

longitude by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, which he first noti- 
ced, his invention of the cycloid, and his perception of the increas- 
ing celerity in the descent of bodies. 

He lived seventy-eight years. Towards the close of his long life, 
ne became blind. Milton has finely alluded to him in the lines 

*' Like the moon, whose orb 
Through optic glass, the Tuscan artist views 
At evening, from the top of Fesole, 
Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, 
Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe." 

5. Raleigh (Sir Walter) was one of the most brilliant and useful cha- 
racters of the times in which he lived. His perseverance in making 
discoveries, first inspired the British nation with that ardour after 
maritime distinction, which has given both wealth and glory to the 
empire. He was also a valiant leader, an able negociator, and a man 
of letters. His works, composed in the obscurity of a dungeon, on 
history, politics, geography, and philosophy, as well as some good 
poetical pieces, will make him known to future time. It must be 
owned, nevertheless, that his genius was cramped by the fashions of 
the age. 

His life, not indeed free from stain, was clouded by misfortune — 
he became the victim of royal persecution, — and his head was finally 
brought to the block. On the most frivolous and arbitrary charges, 
king James confined him in the tower thirteen years ; and though 
he was afterwards released, it M^as not long before he fell again 
under the king's suspicion, the consequence of which was his tragical 
end, on the 29th Oct. 1618. 

That at one time Sir Walter aspired to the hand of Elizabeth, 
would seem to be inferred from the following incident. On a win- 
dow where the queen could see it, he wrote this line — 

" Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall." 

Attracting Elizabeth's eye, she replied to it with her usual good 
sense. 

" If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all." 

6. Bacon (Sir Francis) was born 22d January, 1561, in West- 
minster. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and when 
only a child he was iavourably noticed by Queen Elizabeth, who 
used to call him her " young lord keeper," alluding to the office held 
by his father. On the accession of James I., he rose into power — lie 
was knighted, and successively made attorney-general and keeper 
of the seals, lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage. His eleva- 
tion excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery 
and corruption in the office of lord chancellor. The consequence 
was, that he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to be imprisoned in 
the tower. But his fine was remitted by the king, he was restored 
to the public opinion, and sat in the first parliament called by 
Charles. It is a matter of some doubt whether Bacon was guilty of 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 267 

the crime alledged against him. Tlie blame is wit^^ much reason 
supposed to attacli to his servants, so that the eulogy of the poet, is 
more clearly due to him than the poet's censure — 

" The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." 

Bacon was indeed one of the greatest and most universal geniuses, 
that any age or country has produced. As an author, his " No- 
vum Organum Scientiarum," has, among his other performances, 
immortalized his name. He was the tirst who taught the proper 
method of studying the sciences : that is, he pointed out the way in 
which we should begin and carry on our pursuit of knowledge, in 
order to arrive at truth. In this view he has been very properly 
denominated "the miner and sapper of philosophy," "the pioneer 
of nature," " the priest of nature's mysteries." The great princi- 
ples of the Baconian philosophy, are now universally established. » 

7. Kepler, (John,) though the contemporary of Bacon, and the 
worthy precursor of Newton, was by no means freed from the illu- 
sions of the old philosophy. The old or Aristotelian philosophy 
was the method of anticipating nature, or dictating to her as to 
what her operations are to be, instead of observing what they ac- 
tually are, and inferring general truths from particular facts. Thus, 
Tycho Brahe anticipated nature, in taking it as a certain truth, that 
the earth must be at rest, though he admitted the reality of the 
planetary motions. Thus the great Kepler, imagined that the planets 
must be six in number, because of certain properties of numbers, 
and he maintained other puerile absurdities. He was, however, a 
man of high celebrity as an astronomer, and deservedly commended 
by most of the great astronomers who succeeded him. He first 
proved that the planets do not move in circles, but in ellipses ; and 
that in their motions, they describe equal areas in equal times, &c. 

His earliest years were not improved by education. When, how- 
ever, he began to study, the turn of his intellect was abundantly 
manifest. He was born in 1571, and died in 1630. 

8. Grotius (Hugo) was born at Delft, in 1583, and died, in 1645. 
A singular event of his life, showing the sufferings and dangers of 
literary men in those times, was the following. In consequence of 
the persecution of the Arminians, of whom Grotius was one, and 
an able defender, in 1618, he was doomed to perpetual imprisonment. 
His confinement was alleviated by his literary occupations, and the 
assiduities of his wife. The fond care of this worthy woman at 
last procured his deliverance, after a captivity of nearly two years. 
On pretence of removing books, which she declared proved injurious 
to her husband's health, she was permitted to send away a small 
chest of drawers, of the length of three feet and a half, in which he 
was confined. Thus, carried by two soldiers from the prison, the 
chest was then removed to a distance on horseback, and at the house 
of a friend the illustrious prisoner was set at liberty, pursuing his 
flight afterw^ards in the guise of a mason with a rule and a trowel. 

His particular profession was the law, and he pleaded his first 
cause at the age of seventeen with great eclat. But polite literature 



268 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

engaged much of his attention, and he wrote many works on moral 
and religious subjects, together with histories, poetry, critical notes, 
epistles, &c. His learning was very various and profound, 

9. Des Cartes, (Renedes,) though a man of genius and extensive 
attainments, was too much of a theorist. He, however, advanced 
far beyond his predecessors in many respects, and if he had done 
nothing besides introducing a spirit of inquiry, and a wish of ex- 
amining the mysterious operations of nature, he would have effected 
much for mankind. He was well acquainted with mathematics and 
philosophy, and possessed a mind capable of profound meditation 
and patient inquiry, though highly imaginative. He wrote ingeni- 
ously on the laws of the universe, but his theory of vortices, ac- 
counting for the movements of the planetary worlds, is sufficiently 
visionary. 

He was courted by the learned and the noble, and princes almost 
vied with one another in paying him their attentions. He died at 
the age of fifty-four, at Stockholm, but after he had been interred 
seventeen years, his body was removed to Paris, as his countrymen 
chose to claim it. 

10. Gassendi, (Peter,) also a native of France, was born in Pro- 
vence, 1592. He contributed somewhat to weaken the dominion of 
Aristotle over the human mind, though he was not himself altoge- 
ther based on the true philosophy. He was nevertheless a great 
man and a great scholar ; and to his genius and labours, the intel- 
lectual improvements of subsequent ages are not a httle owing. His 
studious habits proved injurious to his constitution^ but he was in 
some degree relieved by phlebotomy. He, however, at length sunk 
under his chronic complaint, and placing the hand of his faithful 
amanuensis on his heart, after perceiving that the motion of that 
spring of life was faint and fluttering, he exclaimed in these last 
words, " You see what is man's life," and immediately expired, 
22d Oct., 1655. 

11. Pascal, (Blaise) whose early extraordinary powers and at- 
tainments astonished the world, was born at Clermont in Auvergne, 
19th June, 1623. From a child, he inquired into the reasons of 
every thing, and he could be satisfied with nothing but with such 
proof as the subject examined would admit. He alwa}'S sought for 
demonstration ar ' truth, if they could be attained. 

The following circumstance evinces his wonderful aptitude for 
mathematical studies, and the superiority of his intellect. His father, 
an eminent mathematician, had carefully secured him, as was sup- 
posed, from learning the mathematics, by denying the child the 
requisite books. The father's object was first to perfect Blaise in the 
languages ; but the latter extorting from his father by entreaty, a 
definition of geometry, which was very vague and general, imme- 
diately entered on the study, without any other help. He was then 
but twelve years of age. He pursued his inquiries clandestinely, 
till his father happened to enter the room, where he was busy with 
his bars and rings, (used in place of geometrical lines and circles,) 
and to his infinite astonishment, found that the child was endeavour- 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 269 

ing to demonstrate what makes the thirty-second proposition of 
Euclid's first book. He had proceeded thus far in geometry, from 
axioms and principles which he had laid down, and which he had 
applied in a connected series, through the intervening propositions. 

At the age of sixteen, he composed the ablest treatise on conic sec- 
tions, that had appeared since the time of the ancients. At the age 
of nineteen, he contrived a mathematical machine, by which calcu- 
lations of every kind could be made, w^ithout the help of a pen. 
And at the age of twenty-three, he demonstrated the phenomena of 
the gravity of the air, and soon after solved a problem, proposed 
by Mersennus, which had hitherto perplexed the ablest mathema- 
ticians of Europe. 

All these mighty powers and attainments, he consecrated to re- 
ligion, and Christianity never received a more splendid offering than 
she did from the genius of Pascal. His religious views and feelings 
are embodied in his Provincial Letters, and his Thoughts on Re- 
ligion, &c. works, whose celebrity has not surpassed their merits. 

Voltaire, with his characteristic scorn of piety, calls Pascal, "a 
sublime madman, born a century too early." 

12. Milton, (John,) was born in London, 1608. His political and 
controversial writings are justly celebrated, and contain many ad- 
mirable passages. He was a strenuous asserter and defender of 
liberty, and, in many of his views on this and kindred subjects, was 
far in advance of his own age. But as a poet, he is still more justly 
celebrated, and is, at least, a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His 
Paradise Lost, is the greatest poem which modern ages have pro- 
duced. In his life time, the poet never received the meed of praise 
which was his due; but ample justice has since been accorded to 
him, and all posterity will render homage to his transcendent genius. 

The incidents of his life are interesting, but they are so well 
known, that we shall pass them over, except to say that he was 
thrice married ; was subjected to much domestic infelicity, in his 
first marriage; became blind in writing his Defence of the English 
People, against the Attack of Salmasius ; suffered not a little from 
personal and political enemies ; and, finally, died comparatively poor, 
and forsaken by the world. 

It may be added, that he was uncommonly handsome, when 
young ; was economical in his living, and rigidly abstemious; and, 
in religion, was a puritan, with some diversity, however, in his re- 
ligious views, at the different periods of his life. He died of the 
gout, in 1674. 

13. Corneille, (Peter,) whose poetical works are among the sub- 
limest effusions of the French muse, was born at Rouen, 1606. He 
was brought to the bar, but he soon abandoned it for poetry, which 
was far more congenial to his taste. He wrote plays, the most cele- 
brated of which was, the Cid, a tragedy, which drew against him 
the persecution and obloquy of rival wits and unsuccessful poets. 
He is said to have been a very meritorious man, in private life ; 
liberal, humane, and devout, and rather inclined to melancholy. He 
died at the age of seventy-nine years. 

23* 



270 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

14. Boyle, (Robert,) was the seventh son and fourteenth child of 
Richard, earl of Cork, and born in 1626. After having visited foreign 
countries, he retired, in 1646, to his estate at Stalbridge, and, amidst 
the confusion and tumults of the time, enjo3^ed there a peaceful soli- 
tude. He, however, laboured assiduously for the promotion of 
learning and religion, to both of which he was devoted in a most 
exem.plary manner. He was eminent in natural philosophy and 
chemistry, in which, from adopting the Baconian method, he made 
many discoveries. '^ To him," says Boerhaave, " we owe the secrets 
of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, fossils; so that, from his 
works may be deduced the whole system of natural knowledge." 
He invented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. His re- 
gard for religion, he showed in the purity of his life, the genera] 
tendency of his writings, his aversion to temporal honours, which 
were abundantly offered him, and his liberal benefactions in aid of 
benevolent and pious undertakings. His regular charities amounted 
to £1000 annually. He founded a public lecture for the defence of 
divine revelation against unbelievers, and particularly interested 
himself in the propagation of the Gospel among the nations, send- 
ing many hundred copies of parts of the New Testaments into the 
east. He died in his sixty-fifth year. 

15. Dryden, (John,) early gave proof of his superior poetical abili- 
ties. He continued to Vv'rite to old age, and improved to the very last, 
not only in judgment, but in fire, of which, his Ode on St. Cecilia's 
Day, and his Fables, are a proof. He wrote much, both in poetry 
and prose, and doubtless too much ; for the rapidity v/ith which he 
composed, prevented correctness. He produced no less than twen- 
ty-seven plays, besides a very large number of other works. He 
excelled less in dramatic composition, than in any other species of 
poetry. In his .prose, he Vv^as equalled by few of his age, for judg- 
ment, criticism, and erudition. He professes himself to have derived, 
in regard to prose writing, more essential aid from Tillotson, than 
from any other writer. 

Dr. Johnson's critique on Dryden, is very just and discriminating. 
The Edinburgh reviewers place him at the head of his line; they 
think him great as a satirist, but, in respect to genuine poetic power, 
a step lower than the poets of Elizabeth and James. His writings 
are too much tinctured with the licentiousness of the age, and, in 
his religious views, the poet was too flexible and accommodating. 
The year of his birth was 1631 -that of his death 1701. 

16. Locke, (John.) so celebrated as a philosopher, and an orna- 
ment of English literature, was born in 1632. In the field of men- 
tal and political philosophy, he has won laurels that can never fade. 
He has been called, " the glory of theorists." 

By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situa- 
tion under government, and wrote, at that time, several political 
tracts. The danger of prosecution for high treason, compelled his 
lordship, at length, to fly to Holland. Thither Mr. Locke followed 
him. After a time, the English demanded him of the States Gene- 
ral, on suspicion of being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion. 



SWEDEN. 271 

Thus persecuted, Locke concealed himself twelve months, devoting 
his time to literary labours; and, two years after, when he returned 
to England, in consequence of the revolution, he published his cele- 
brated Essay on the Human Understanding, in the composition of 
which, he had been engaged nine years. The latter portion of his 
life was passed in religious retirement, and in the composition of 
theological treatises. He died at the seat of lady Masham, his 
friend, in 1 704, gi^ing emphatic testimony, in what he said, to the 
vanity of human life. 

17. Leibnitz (William Godfrey) was not undistinguished as a 
statesman, lawyer, and poet, though he is most celebrated as a 
mathematician and philosopher. On the principle of the Baconian 
philosophy, he must be pronounced wanting, in some respects, yet 
he enjoyed the singular felicity of being esteemed the greatest and 
most learned man in Europe. 

In civil life, he had considerable employment, and attained to 
some distinction. He spent thirteen years in studying the plan of an 
universal language, but he died before he had completed the extra- 
ordinary design. Leibnitz proposed characters which, like those in 
algebra, might not only be simple, but expressive, and enable men 
of all nations to converse familiarly together. He died in 1716, of 
those complicated disorders, the gout and the stone, aged seventy. 

In temper, he was passionate ; in character, a"\'aricious. At his 
death, such a quantity of money was found in his house, hoarded in 
sacks, that the wife of his nephew, who possessed his property, died 
with excess of joy at the sight. 



PERIOD X. 

The period of the American and French Revolutions ; ex- 
tending' from the death of CJiarles XII., of iSwedeUj 
1718 A. C, to the final restoration of the Bourbons^ 



1815 A. a 



SWEDEN. 



Sect. 1. In pursuing tlie history of Sweden, a country 
which at this time excited much attention, on account of the 
character of its sovereign, we have to record an event, which 
secured for Sweden a reformation of her government, and 
saved Europe from the ravages of a fatal ambition. This 
was the death of Charles XIL, who, while besieging a Nor- 
wegian fortress, was killed by a cannon ball, on the 11th of 
1718. 



272 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

§ While Charles remained in Turkey, the czar and the king of 
Denmark ravaged Sweden on every side. At the same time, through 
the influence of the czar, Stanislaus had been driven from the throne 
of Poland, on which Augustus was replaced. This state of aifairs 
made Charles desirous of returning to his own country, especially 
as he despaired of engaging the sultan in a war with Russia. Re- 
turning in disguise, he immediately conceived the design of wresting 
Norway from Denmark. This project, however, he soon abandoned, 
in consequence of failing in the outset. Sweden w^as too much 
exhausted and distracted, and surrounded by too many powerful 
enemies, to sustain him at that time, in a war of conquest. 

His able minister, Goertz, advised him to a different course, which 
was, to make peace with the czar, and with him, unite in the attempt 
to dethrone George I., and reinstate James, on the throne of Great 
Britain. These measures were agreed upon ; but in the interval oi 
preparation, Charles, still wishing to wrest Norway from the Danes, 
made an attack on that country. It was in this expedition that he lost 
his life. A half pound ball, discharged from a cannon loaded with 
grape shot, struck his head, while he was exposing himself, with per- 
fect temerity, to unnecessary danger. Though he expired without a 
groan, the moment he had received the blow, he instinctively grasped 
the hilt of his sword, and was found in that position, so characteristic 
of his temper. 

No conqueror, either of ancient or modern times, ever had a more 
enthusiastic passion for glory, than Charles XII. This is the clue to 
all those eccentricities and acts of daring, which have justly entitled 
him to the epithet of " mad-man." His preceptor asked him, when 
a pupil, what he thought of Alexander. " I think," said he, " that 
I should choose to be like him." " Aye, but," said the tutor, " he 
lived only thirty-two years." "Oh," answered the prince, " that is 
long enough, when a man has conquered kingdoms." 

After the death of Charles, Sweden, exhausted and impoverished, 
demanded repose and enjoyed it. She engaged in the pursuits of com- 
merce, and cultivated the attendant arts. Her islands in the West 
Indies, were of great consequence to her foreign trade. The states 
took the opportunity to reform the government, and wisely restricted 
tlie prerogatives of the crown. 

2. Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ulrica 
Eleonora, by the election of the states, who permitted her 
husband, the prince of Hesse, to be associated with her in 
tlie government ; but they greatly limited the power of the 
sovereign. Ulrica soon resigned the throne to her husband. 
On his death, in 1751, the states elected Adolphus Frederick, 
a prince of mild and pacific virtues, but whose reign was 
rendered most uneasy, by the factions of the senate. After 
his decease, the sceptre was given to his son, Gustavus III., 
in 1771, who, notwithstanding his coronation oath, deprive^* 



PRUSSIA. 273 

the senate of its privileges, and rendered himself absolute. 
The despotism, however, which he w-rongfiiUy procured, he 
moderately exercised, and the succeeding part of his reign w^as 
marked v/ith peace and prosperity. In 1792, he was assas- 
sinated, at a masked ball. 

§ Gustavus effected the change in the government, in the following 
manner. Having assembled the officers of his army, without making 
any communication of his design, he repaired to the senate house, 
where he read a decree, already prepared, for making the crown ab- 
solute, caused it to be signed by all the members of the senate, and 
then dismissed the assembly. 

3. Gustavus IV., son of the former, now succeeded to the 
throne, under the regency of the duke of Sudermania. In 
1800, he joined the Northern Confederacy against England, 
but made peace with that power the next }'ear. In 1805, he 
united with Austria and Russia, in the war against France. 
He soon after, lost Pomerania and Rugen, and in 1808, Fin- 
land, which was conquered by Russia. He wa^ dethroned 
in 1809, and the crown given to the duke of Sudermania. 

§ The conduct of Gustavus, in the latter part of the period of these 
wars, was marked by so much extravagance, that he was considered 
mentally deranged ; and to prevent the total ruin of the kingdom, 
it was determined to dethrone him. This plan was carried into ef- 
fect, without difficulty or blood-shed. 

4. The duke of Sudermania, under the title of Charles 
XIII., made peace with France ; but the king having no 
children, Bernadotte, a favourite general of Napoleon, was, 
through his influence, declared crowai prince and successor 
to the throne, 1810. Bernadotte, however, has been faithful 
to the country which adopted him, and he never afforded any 
aid to his former master. 

§ Upon the death of Charles, in 1818, the crown prince quietly 
succeeded to the throne. He rendered efficient aid in the wars which 
terminated in the overthrow of the French emperor. He proves to 
be a wise prince, and promotes the welfare of his subjects, by salu- 
tary improvements and reforms. A few years before the accession 
of Bernadotte, (1814,) Norway was taken from Denmark, and an- 
nexed to Sweden, in opposition to the wishes and efforts of the Nor- 
wegians. 

PRUSSIA. 

5. Prussia was very httle noticed, till some time within 
the present period, when Frederick II., the Great, raised the 
kingdom to a high degree of splendour. It had existed as a 



274 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

kingdom, from the year 1700, when all the German states 
acknowledged it as such. It was before styled the Electorate 
of Brandenburgh. 

§ This country was inhabited by the Borussi, who denominated it 
Borussia, which has been corrupted to Prussia. They were conquered 
by the knights of the Teutonic order, whom Cassimer IV., king of 
Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves his vassals, and to al- 
low Polish Prussia to continue under the protection of Poland. 

Modern Prussia, is a kingdom formed of several states, united by 
alliances and conquests. The house of Brandenburgh, which now 
occupies the throne, is descended, in a direct line, from the ancient 
family of Hohenzollern, mentioned in history from the year 800. 
The more distinguished predecessors of the great Frederick, were 
Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector, and Frederick Wil- 
liam I., the father of the Great Frederick. Frederick William, the 
Elector, was a prudent and valiant prince. At the commencement 
of his reign, his electorate resembled a desert ; the villages were 
burnt, the cities presented nothing but ruins, and a part of his inheri- 
tance was in the hands of the Swedes. He began by regulating the 
finances, and discharging his father's unworthy ministers, and by 
skilful negotiations, regained all the provinces guaranteed to him by 
the peace of Westphalia. 

Frederick William I., would have been deemed an extraordinary 
man, had he not been eclipsed by his greater son. As the case is, 
his talents and management excite a degree of wonder. His father 
was profuse, and lavished treasures without an object. Frederick 
William was economical in the extreme, and expended nothing ex- 
cept on the soldiery. In his dress and diet, he was remarkably sim- 
ple and plain. He even denied himself the common comforts of 
life, being wont to say, that a prince ought to spare not only the blood, 
but the property of his subjects. Voltaire describes this monarch 
thus. " He used to walk from his palace, clothed in an old blue coat 
with copper buttons, half way down his thighs ; and when he bought 
a new one, these buttons were made to serve again. It was in this 
dress that his majesty, armed with a huge Serjeant's cane, marched 
forth every day to review his regiment of giants. These giants 
were his greatest delight, and the things for which he went to the 
heaviest expense. The men who stood in the first rank of this re- 
giment, were none of them less than seven feet high ; and he sent 
to purchase them from the farthest parts of Europe, to the borders 
of Asia." 

FrederickWilliam was a man of vulgar habits, and coarse manners, 
and often treated his children w'lih a rudeness and asperity, that 
would have disgraced a savage. According to an account given by 
his daughter, W^ilhelmina, princess of Prussia, it would be difficult 
to count the canings and the fisticuffs with which he gratified his 
son, the great Frederick, who could never appear before the king with- 
out being beaten, or, at least, insulted. The princess, too, had her 
full share of the brutal liberality of her father, who often struck her. 



PRUSSIA. 275 

She tells us, one day, " he seized her by the hand, gave her several 
blows on the face with his fist, one of which knocked her over." 
What added to their misfortunes was, the severe diet to which they 
were condemned, for they were almost hterally famishing. There 
was often nothing at their father's table but garden-stuff, so badly- 
cooked, that it disgusted them. Frequently, indeed, it was impossi- 
ble to touch it, for, after serving the other guests, Frederic William 
would spit in the dish, that his children might not break their fast. 
What a specimen of a prince's court. 

6. Frederick II., the Great, ascended the throne, 1740. 
His father had left him an efficient and well disciplined army, 
amounting to sixty-six thousand men. His views were bent 
on conquest, and on the enlargement of his small territory. 
With the best army in Europe, he was by no means backward 
in putting his ambitious projects into execution. The next year 
after his accession, he revived some obsolete claim to Silesia, 
and accordingly marched against the Austrians, whom he de- 
feated at the battle of Molwitz. He effected the conquest of 
Silesia, in 1742. He next invaded Saxony, but the part he 
had already acted, was sufficient to alarm the neighbouring 
states. Accordingly, Russia, Austria, and France, concluded 
a treaty of defensive alliance against him. This confedera- 
cy took place in 1756, and constituted what is called, " the 
seven years' war," which proved to be an extremely sangui- 
nary contest. 

§ The success of this war was various. Frederick maintained his 
ground against his powerful enemies, sometimes conquering, and 
sometimes conquered. He lost, perhaps, as many battles as he gain- 
ed ; but so equal a contest was wonderful, considering the vast su- 
periority of numbers on the side of his opponents. At last, howe- 
ver, his affairs became so critical, from his diminishing resources, 
and the increase of his enemies, that he began to act solely on the de- 
fensive. But the death of the Russian empress, at this time, afford- 
ed him the most essential relief. Her successor made peace with 
the Prussian king, and being joined by the Russian troops, with 
whose aid, Frederick obtained an important victory, he was enabled 
to secure an honourable peace with aU the hostile powers. 

In 1772, Frederick added New Prussia to his dominions, 
which, in conjunction with Russia and Austria, he dismem- 
bered from Poland. In 1786, he died, at the age of seventy- 
four years, with the reputation of being the greatest warrior 
of the time, and one of the most distinguished princes of 
whom history has preserved any memorial. This distinc- 



276 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

tion, howeverj lies not in his moral, but in his intellectual 
endowments. 

§ Frederick possessed- a discernment, energy, activity, decision, 
and constancy of purpose, which fitted him to act the part of a hero; 
and, together with these qualities, as much moral perverseness as is 
required to make a consummate hero. He was not so distinguished 
for the conduct of a battle, or a campaign, as for resources in adver- 
sity, for celerity of operation, and, especially, for the discipline of 
his troops. An instance of his decision of character, and the seve- 
nty of his discipline, appears in the following relation : 

Intending to m;ike, in the night, an important movement in his 
camp, which was in sight of the enemy, he gave orders, that by eight 
o'clock, all the lights in the camp should be put out, on pain of death. 
The moment that the time was past, he walked out himself to see whe- 
ther all were dark. He found a light in the tent of a captain Zietern, 
which he entered, just as the officer was folding up a letter. Zietern 
knew him, and instantly fell on his knees, to intreat his mercy. 
The king asked, to whom he had been writing ; he said it was a let- 
ter to his wife, which he had retained the candle these few minutes 
beyond the time, in order to finisli. The king coolly ordered him to 
write one line more, which he should dictate. This line was to in- 
form his wife, without any explanation, that by such an hour the 
next day, he sliould be a dead man. The letter was then sent as had 
been intended, and the next day the captain was executed. 

Frederick was remarkably attentive to business, and ever)^ depart- 
ment of administration was under his own immediate inspection. 
The most minute particulars of national and domestic policy, did 
not escape his observation. He extended the limit'^ of his kingdom, 
and much increased its industry, population, and wealth. 

His intellectual powers were great, and when we consider his 
situation, and the little care that had been taken of his education, 
we must acknowledge, that his literary acquisitions were considera- 
ble. He had much general knowledge of the sciences, and was well 
conversant with French writers on polite literature. He aimed at 
the reputation both of philosopher and poet, and was a voluminous 
author in prose and verse. 

Nothing favourable can be said of his moral and religious charac- 
ter. He was sceptical, undevout, and addicted to various species of 
vice. Atheists and libertines were his bosom companions, particu- 
larly the corrupting and flagitious Voltaire. 

7. He was succeeded, 1786, by Frederick William II., his 
nephew, an impolitic, pleasure-loving prince, who joined in 
the league against the French republic, and then deserted his 
allies. Dying in 1797, he was succeeded by his son Frede- 
rick William III., who unhappily revived some obsolete pre- 
tensions to Hanover, in 1805, and on Napoleon's proposhigto 
restore that electorate to the king of England, in 1806, Fre- 



GERMANY. 277 

derick took the field against him, and experienced an utter 
overthrow at the great battle of Jena, which was fought Oc- 
tober 14, 1806. 

§ A hereditary animosity against Austria, prevented a co-operation 
of strength, when their national existence was threatened. The 
whole of Germany, well imited and organized, would, probably, 
at any time, have resisted the power of Napoleon. But being di- 
vided, both Prussia and Austria, as well as the lesser states, were 
overrun and subjected by the fortunate conqueror. Prussia, after 
neglecting several opportunities of humbling the common enemy, 
with a strange inconsideration, risked her national existence on the 
issue of a single battle. She trusted too implicitly in her ancient mi- 
litary fame, and the beauty of her army, (for there was not a proud- 
er army in Europe,) and, therefore, fell before her more sagacious 
and calculating enemy. Frederick was shorn of nearly half of his 
dominions. 

8. In 1812, the Prussian monarch assisted the French in 
their Russian campaign ; but on the failure of that enter- 
prise, joined his forces with those of the emperor Alexander, 
and contributed to the subsequent overthrow of Napoleon. At 
the battle of Waterloo, his army, vmder the valiant Blucher, 
turned the fortune of the day, and thus essentially contributed 
to the restoration of the Bourbons. Prussia lionourably acquit- 
ted herself in this great contention, and regained hej^;^ former 
territory. Of late years, the Prussian king has been effectu- 
ally engaged in promoting the intellectual improvement of his 
people. Perhaps, no monarch in Europe, has done more than 
he, to advance the true happiness and glory of his kingdom. 
He has declared, that a Bible shall be put into the hands of 
every peasant's family in his realm. 

§ It has been conjectured by politicians, that Prussia cannot long 
preserve the rank that she has now attained, situated as her territory 
is, running out in different parcels of lands, of singular shape, and 
intersected by half of the secondary states of Germany. It is, there- 
fore, further supposed, that Frederick only waits a favourable oppor- 
tunity, to consolidate his territory ; and they are Ihtle acquainted 
with the intelligence, energy, and ambition of the Prussian people, 
who imagine they will be backward in attempting any thing which 
promises to promote their national honour and security. 

GERMANY. 

9. In the history of Germany, during this period, we are 
principally conceined with Austria, its more important mem- 
ber, in which the imperial crown usuaUy resides. From the 

24 



278 MODRRN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

commencement of this period, there was no war of any con- 
sequence, till that of the Pragmatic Sanction, which was an 
engagement of several powers, to secure the Austrian domi- 
nions to the female children of the emperor Charles VL, in 
case of the failure of male issue. 

§ Charles VI. died without male issue, 1740. The house of Austria, 
in the male line, thus became extinct, after it had governed Austria 
for several centuries, and the whole of the Austrian dominions now 
belonged to Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the emperor. She 
was accordingly raised to the Austrian throne ; but the neighbour- 
ing powers, regardless of their engagements, supported the duke of 
Bavaria, in his claim to the crown. After much opposition, the lat- 
ter was invested with the imperial dignity, in 1742, under the name 
of Charles Vil. ; but this prince, worn out by a complication of 
bodily complaints, and by a long train of misfortunes, died two years 
afterwards. In the mean time, the queen, though nearly overwhelm- 
ed by her numerous adversaries, finally triumphed over them, and 
at the peace of 1748, was confirmed in the possession of her domi- 
nions, and her husband, duke of Lorrain, under the title of Francis 
I., was raised to the imperial throne. 

10. Francis I., was crowned at Frankfort, in 1745. He 
continued the war till 1748, when the peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle w^as concluded, and Maria Theresa obtained the succjs- 
sion of her father. She had all the time been sustained by 
the affection of her subjects, and had received important aid 
from Great Britain. 

During the reign of Francis, the " seven years' war," the 
fiercest that had hitherto been waged in Germany, took place ; 
but of this, an account has been given in tlie history of Prussia. 

§ Maria Theresa, as heiress to the Austrian dominions, was queen 
of Hungary and Bohemia; and as the wife of Francis, was empress 
of Germany. She was a woman distinguished for her heroism, in- 
telligence, felicity of temper, and captivating condescension. As a 
wife and parent, she was unrivalled ; she was blessed with a nume- 
rous and amiable progeny, and left her possessions to a son, who 
was worthy of the empire. She built hospitals, encouraged com- 
merce and science, and did every thing which humanity and muni- 
ficence could devise to render her infirm soldiers comfortable. 

11. Joseph II., the son of Francis and Maria, succeeded 
to the empire, in 1765. He seized Bavaria, on the death of 
Maximilian XL, the elector, 1777 ; made war two years with 
Prussia ; reformed the church of Germany, indulging the 
protestants with the imperial protection, and curtailing the 
authority of the court of Rome ; dismantled the fortified 
towns in Brabant ; restrained the excesses of the clergy in 



GERMANY. 279 

that country, nd carried on a disastrous war against the 
Turks. During that war, he died. He maintained the cha- 
racter of a most eijci table and tolerant prince. 

§ Joseph promulgated a decree in favour of the liberty of the 
press, which had L.-en, hitherto, much circumscribed in the Austrian 
dominions. He even permitted, that all strictures upon the throne 
itself might be published, with full security, provided they did not 
descend to the charactci of libels and pasquinades. " If they be 
founded in justice," said he, " we shall profit by them ; if not, we 
shall disregard them ;" a remark well worthy of his character and 
dignity. 

It was during the reign of Joseph, that a series of unfavourable 
seasons had occasioned a general dearth of corn, which was more 
or less felt in all the countries of Europe ; but in parts of Germany, 
the scarcity was so great, that vast numbers of people actually pe- 
rished, and the peasants, in m^.ny places, were compelled to unthatch 
their cottages, to supply the want of provender for their cattle. They 
themselves, in some instances, subsisted on the bark of beech and 
alder, mixed with a quantity of spice. A part of this time, terrible 
inundations overspread the country ; several districts were totally 
ruined by a flood of the Elbe ; Hamburgh was in a most critical 
situation ; and the great suburb lying towards the Elbe, was so com- 
pletely covered with water, that only the tops of the trees were dis- 
cernible. 

12. Leopold 11. , brother of Joseph, was invested with the 
empire, in 1790. Though powerfully solicited to arm against 
the revolutionists of France, his moderation and prudence 
kept him aloof from the vortex ; but a speedy death cut short 
the promise of much excellence. At the time of his death, 
however, he was preparing to take the field against France. 

§ After the " seven years' war," the Germanic body remained in 
comparative quiet, till the French Revolution. During that period, 
up to the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, Germany suffer- 
ed more than most other nations. Its territory was the theatre of 
most of the wars that were waged during the great struggle. This 
country, however, had been eminently prepared to experience the 
evils which such an event was calculated to produce. The Germans 
embraced the fashionable prevailing system of anarchy and irreli- 
gion, with almost the same ardour which characterized the French 
tiiemselves ; and their country was early inundated with the deadly 
publications which proceeded from the school of atheistical disor- 
ganizers. 

In nearly all the wars of the revolution, and of the subsequent 
period, Austria has had a share. She has generally been arrayed 
against France, and often been beaten. In the production of such a 
result, some have been disposed to ascribe more to French intrigue, 
than to the superiority of the French soldiers, or generals, over those 
of Austria. The archduke Charles, brother of the present emperor, 



280 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X, 

Francis II., has often shown himself not inferior to any of the com - 
manders of his time. 

13. Francis II., son of Leopold, was crowned in 179;^. He 
has proved to be a prince of mild virtues, and is much re- 
spected. He prosecuted the contemplated war wdth the 
French republic ; but it proving unsuccessful, he concluded 
the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, by w^iich, the Nether- 
lands were ceded to France. This was the first in that series 
of hostilities, which distinguished that period of convulsion. 

14. Hostilities weij^ renewed in 1799, in Italy, on the part 
of Austria, assisted hf Russia ; for it was evident to the Ai!&- 
trian sovereign, that France was bent on aggrandizement. 
The Russian forces were commanded by Marshal Suwarrow. 
The war was carried on with great success, on the part of the 
Austrians and Russians, and the French were in a few months 
driven out of Italy. Much now might have been accom- 
plished for the salvation of Europe, had it not been for the 
jealousy which the Austrian court felt towards their ally. 

§ This jealousy was, without doubt, excited by the intrigues of 
France ; and the consequence was, that Paul, the Russian emperor^ 
recalled his victorious troops. 

Austria, left single-handed to sustain the contest, and meetr 
ing the enemy with scattered forces, suffeied most severely 
in the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden. Peace 
was concluded at Luneville, in 1801. This w^as the second 
war, and more humiliating to Austria than the former. 

§ During the peace, Francis formed a numerous army, and fore- 
seeing the ruin of the German constitution, caused himself to be 
proclaimed hereditary emperor of Austria, in 1804. 

15. The Austrian sovereign had been mortified too severe- 
ly, to remain contented at peace. A third warlike coahtion 
was formed between Austria and Russia, against France, in 
1805. But the destruction of an Austrian army, under Ge- 
neral Mack, and the fatal battle of Austerlitz, speedily ter- 
minated this war. The same year, the peace of Presburgb 
followed, in which the Austrian monarchy was far more hum- 
bled than ever, by the loss of some of its most knportant pos 
sessions. 

§ A part only of the emperor of Russia's forces, had joined those 
of Francis, when the battle of Austerlitz took place. To this im- 
prudence, was added the greater one, of risking an engagement 
without the assistance of the archduke Charles, who, at the distance 



GERMANY. 281 

of only a few days' march, was hastening with a victorious army, 
of nearly one hundred thousand men. 

In 1806, several of the states of Germany were united 
under the name of the " Confederacy of the Rhine," of which 
Napoleon was acknowledged the head ; and in the course of 
the same year, Francis was compelled formally to resign the 
title of emperor of Germany, and to absolve the German 
states from their reciprocal duties towards the empire. 

§ According to the terms of this confederacy, all those states of 
the ancient German empire, that did not accede to the act of federa- 
tion, were excluded from common protection. By this means, the 
French emperor united Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, Burg, Darm- 
stadt, Nassau, Hohenzollern, &c., to thepoUlical interests of France, 
and, virtually, raised himself to the head of the German empire. 

16. In 1809, Austria, for the fourth time, took the field 
against France. In this war, was fought the sanguinary 
battle of Essling, in which the French emperor, almost for 
the first time, was beaten in a regular field fight ; but re- 
ceiving a large reinforcement, he crossed the Danube, from 
which he had been driven back, and fought the long and ob- 
stinate battle of Wagram. This battle, lost by Austria, ter- 
minated the war, and the conditions of peace were soon after 
settled by the treaty of Vienna, according to which, Francis 
was obliged to relinquish a further portion of territory, and 
consented to bestow his eldest daughter and child, Maria 
Louisa, on the emperor of France. 

§ In this war, the Austrians had taken wiser measures than before. 
Their best commanders were in the field ; the archduke Charles, as- 
sisted by the archduke John, the prince of Lichtenstein, and the 
prince of Schwartzenburg. The whole strength and resources of the 
empire were held in requisition ; but Austria had become essentially 
weakened, and really less a match for France than ever : and, be- 
sides, the French emperor was in advance of the Austrian. Antici- 
pating the event of a declaration of war, he was soon prepared for 
action, and joining his army, marched at once into the heart of Ger- 
many. So expeditious was the French emperor, that forty-five 
days after the declaration of war by Austria, the battle of Essling 
was fought below Vienna. 

17. In 1813, Austria engaged in a fifth war with France, 
having united its forces with those of Russia, Prussia, Great 
Britain, and almost all Europe, in the invasion of France, in 
obtaining possession of Paris, and in dethroning Napoleon. 
On this occasion, the emperor accompanied the army, which 
was commanded by the prince of Schwartzenburg. Then 

24* 



282 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. 

was gained the celebrated battle of Leipsic, which produced 
the overthrow of Napoleon. The whole allied forces were, 
in this battle, principally commanded by Schwartzenburg. 

§ When this junction of the greatest part of Europe was formedy 
Napoleon had just returned from Russia, having lost his great army, 
composed in part of troops of many European nations, then his tri- 
butaries. Austria, at first seemed reluctant to take the field, proba- 
bly on account of its family alliance. A remembrance of former 
sufferings may also have had its effect. But, though late, the assis- 
tance of Austria was very eflicient. 

It was on hearing of the issue of the battle of Leipsic, which was 
announced by Schwartzenburg himself, to the emperors of Austria 
and Russia, and to the king of Prussia, that these three sovereigns, 
who were viewing the battle from a distant hill, on horseback, hn- 
mediately dismounted, and, on their bended knees, offered a tribute 
of thanks to the God who had crowned their arms with victory. 

18. On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, in 1815, Au- 
stria, for the last time, combined with the other powers of 
Europe, to dethrone him, and succeeded. At this time, a 
new union was formed by the states of Germany, designed 
to secure its future tranquillity, under the title of the Ger- 
manic Confederation. This was signed at Vienna, by its 
sovereigns and free cities ; and it is to be hoped that, as it 
has done hitherto, so it will continue to prove, a powerful 
preservative against the renewal of those wars, domestic and 
foreign, of which Germany has so often been the cause and 
the victim. 

§ In the new order of things, which succeeded the downfal of the 
French emperor, Austria manifested a due regard to the rights of 
the Germanic body, as appears from the nature of the confederation 
above noticed. The several states have been reinstated, as far as 
possible, in their former possessions, and Francis is nov/ acknow- 
ledged, as formerly, the emperor of Germany. 

Shortly after, another union, of a more doubtful character, was 
formed between the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of 
Prussia, to which they gave the name of the Holy Alliance. The 
object, in a great measure, seems to have been to confirm their own 
power, and to suppress any effort, on the part of their subjects, to 
obtain liberal constitutions. 

The improper views of this confederacy, were openly displayed 
on the occasion of the Neapolitan revolution. A congress of the 
three sovereigns, in 1821, issued a manifesto against Naples, in 
which they plainly avow their hostility to every form of improve* 
ment. To enforce their views, an Austrian army marched towards 
the territories of Naples. This alliance may, at the present mo^ 
ment, be considered as virtually dissolved. 



POLAND. 283 



POLAND. 



19. Poland, which existed in independence, during a 
part of the present period, was a nation of some importance, 
for several ages ; but we feel little interest in its history, tDl 
nearly the memorable era when it was blotted out from the 
list of nations. Its fine situation, and rich natural resources, 
are strikingly contrasted with its wretched government and 
institutions; nor can we, perhaps, find a spot on the globe, 
where, with so many physical means of securing felicity, a 
civilized people are found, that have been involved in greater 
miseries. Its former government, which partook of all the 
diflferent kinds, with a pecuUarly strong infusion of aristocracy, 
and with a weak executive power, was wholly inadequate to 
the administration of justice, or the maintenance of peace. 
Weakness, anarchy and crime within, and injustice, trea- 
chery, and oppression on the part of others, without, consti- 
tute a great portion of the history of Poland. Yet its in- 
habitants were not without some striking and noble charac- 
teristics. They were a brave and martial people. Amidst 
their degradation, they cherished the love of liberty in an 
eminent degree. 

Till the first division and plunder of Poland, in 1772, we 
find a long list of kings up to the year 842, A. C. But we 
can record the names of a very few only. 

§ Poland is denominated by the natives, Poloka; which is aScla- 
vonian word, signifying a level or champain country. Such is the 
surface of Poland. 

In the history of its sovereigns, we notice the name of Lech V., 
who is here introduced for the sake of a singular maxim, which he 
used to utter, and which must be very convenient to a king. "A 
sorereign is not bound to observe his oath, except when nehher his 
safety nor his advantage requires that he should violate it." His 
reign, it is said, was the most inauspicious in the annals of the na- 
tion. 

Cassimer III., the Great, formed a new code of laws, which he 
committed to writing ; for, before his time, the Poles had only oral 
traditions. This was in the middle of the fourteenth century. Cas- 
simer is said to have been a model of integrity, wisdom and pri>- 
dence. 

Sigismund I., whose reign began in 1506, was one of the most 
^complished monarchs that ever sat on the throne of Poland. In his 
epitaph, which was not composed in the language of exaggeration. 



284 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

he was styled the '• conqueror of the Russians, Wallachians, and 
Prussians," and obtained the still more honourable appellation of the 
" father of his country." He applied himself to the improvement 
of the manners of his subjects, by inspiring them with a taste for 
the arts and sciences, and fortified and embellished the cities. 

No Polish monarch was more distinguished, on the whole, than 
John Sobieski, who ascended the throne in 1674. Many of the 
rulers of Poland were foreigners, but Sobieski was a native, elected 
on account of his eminent virtues, and military talents. He was 
particularly distinguished by his wars with the Turks, and his vic- 
tories over them. The assistance which he rendered to the house 
of Austria, when Vienna was besieged by an army of 200,000 men, 
has been mentioned in another place. He died in 1696, leaving hifl 
country in prosperity and peace. 

Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen as the succes- 
sor of Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. The fao- 
tious nobles, who had been kept in awe under Sobieski, were un- 
willing to place any one of his family on the throne, and thus showed 
themselves unworthy of such a sovereign. Augustus made war against 
Charles XH. of Sweden, mistaking utterly the character of his ene- 
my. Being defeated and overcome, he was dethroned, and Stanislaus, 
through the influence of Charles in the diet of Warsaw, was elect- 
ed to fill his place, in 1704. After the ruin of Charles, at Pultowa, 
Augustus was restored to the throne, and in 1773, was succeeded by 
his son Frederick Augustus H,, after an interregnum of eight months* 
The reign of the latter was generally tranquil and peaceable, though 
both before and afterwards, the kingdom was in a very unquiet state, 
owing to political and religious controversies, as well as foreign wars. 

Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, elected in 1763, was the last 
king of Poland. He was the creature of Catharine of Russia, placed 
on the throne, more by the infiuence of her armies and treasures, 
than by the free consent of the Polish nobles ; and in the subsequent 
difficulties of his reign, was unable to manifest the independence of 
a sovereign. He was finally kept as an honourable prisoner, at Pe- 
tersburgh, where he died, in 1798. 

20. In 1772, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria, which had, for some time, been secret- 
ly meditated, took place, to the utter astonishment of all 
Europe. This has been stigmatized as one of the most un- 
principled acts recorded in history. The pretexts of the 
plunderers, as set forth in their manifestoes, were various ; but 
they were doubtless encouraged to this act of violence, in 
consequence of the perpetual divisions in the Pohsh counsels, 
and the mutual animosities of the nobility. Indeed, they 
purposely increased the factions and difficulties in which the 
nation was involved. 

§ Prussia laid the train of events, by flattering the Russians with 



POLAND. 285 

the idea of giving a king to Poland ; but not designing that Poland 
should sink into a Russian province, it was contrived on the part of 
Prussia, to make the Poles dissatisfied with their king. This was 
easily effected, and in the course of two or three years, nothing could 
exceed the disorder, dissensions, and weakness of the kingdom. In 
this situation of affairs, when the Pole^ were prevented from vindi- 
cating their sacred rights, the unholy deed of partition was perpe- 
trated. Each party had previously agreed on its portion, the whole 
including nearly half of the Polish territory. The Diet was assem- 
bled, and surrounded by the partitioning powers, it could do no other- 
wise than sanction, by a legislative act, the crime which these 
powers had committed. 

In the division which was made, Frederick seized Polish 
Prussia, and a part of Great Poland ; the emperor of Austria, 
the kingdoms of Gahcia and Ludomiria ; and Catharine, 
Pohsh Livonia, wdth a part of Lithuania. 

21. In 1791, a revolution took place in Poland; a new 
constitution was proclaimed, which opened to the middUng 
classes, the avenue to every employment ; and the crown, 
hitherto elective, was declared to be hereditary. This was 
done in an assembly of the people, with entire concord. But 
Poland, despoiled of half her territories, was weak ; and 
though the change was approved by all Europe, except Russia, 
the Poles were suffered to become the victims of the Russian 
empress, and eventually again of the Prussian and Austrian 
sovereigns. A new division w^as agreed on, in 1793, which 
included a considerable portion of the remainder of Poland. 

§ Catharine first resented the act of the Poles in framing a new 
constitution, as it was wl oily opposed to her ambitious views in re- 
gard to the remainder of Poland. Frederick William, though he at 
first expressed his approbation of the measure, yet finally, with un- 
blushing effrontery, consented, with the others, to act the royal 
plunderer. 

22. Before, however, this second nefarious project could be 
executed, it became necessary to encounter the hazards of 
war. The spirit of the Poles was raised, and under the brave 
and patriotic Kosciusko, they resisted, for a time, the united 
force of their powerful enemies. But on the part of enfeebled 
Poland, numbers were wanting, which could not long be 
suppUed by love of country and a desire of vengeance ; and 
Kosciusko, after making every effort that man could be ex- 
pected to make, was defeated and taken prisoner. Under 
the barbarous Suwarrow, Warsaw was captured and sacked. 



286 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

In attempting to defend it, nine thousand gallant Poles 
perished. 

§ But the carnage which succeeded the victory, was greater, and 
has forever tarnished the laurels of the Russian general. The houses 
were pillaged, women violated, children murdered, and thirty thou- 
sand victims fell a prey to a ferocity bordering on that of savages. 

Kosciusko, who originated from a noble family, had been a dis- 
tinguished officer in the United States of America, during the war 
of the Revolution. The Poles elected him their general, and he 
proved worthy of their choice. Under more propitious circumstan- 
ces, he would have been hailed as the deliverer of his country. After 
his defeat, he was held as a prisoner at Petersburgh, till the death of 
the empress, in 1797. Upon the accession of Paul, he obtained his 
freedom, and was favoured with a pension — an act on the part of 
the Russian monarch, which received the applause of the civilized 
world. Kosciusko has since been in America. 

23. A third and final dismemberment of Poland, took place 
in 1795, when the three powers appropriated it entirely to 
themselves. Both Stanislaus and Kosciusko, were secured; 
the spirit of the Poles was crushed, and the robbers had only 
quietly to divide all that remained of their bloody prey. 

At the congress held at Vienna, in 1815, part of Poland 
was united to the Russian Empire, with the preservation of 
its own constitution ; and on this event, Alexander, emperor 
of Russia, assumed the title of king of Poland. 

RUSSIA. 

24. In the history of Russia, we find Catharine I., the wife 
of Peter the Great, on the throne, near the commencement 
of this period. By his appointment, she succeeded him, in 
1725. Slie reigned only two years, but with great ability, 
and pursued the plan begun by her husband, in civilizing her 
people. 

§ Catharine was originally the wife of a Swedish soldier, but fall- 
ing into the power of the Russians, she was employed in the gene- 
ral's kitchen, where Menzicoflf, one of Peter's favourites, saw and 
obtained her. Peter having met her at Menzicoff' s house, and being 
delighted with her understanding, at first made her his mistress, but 
afterwards married her. She obtained a complete control over the 
emperor, by her singularly gay and cheerful temper, as well as by 
her respectful and kind attentions. 

25. Peter IL, grandson of Peter the Great, succeeded her, 
in 1727. He reigned only three years, but his reign was a 



RUSSIA. 287 

scene of peace and prosperity. He Avas extremely beloved 
by his people. 

§ The succession, during several reigns after Peter the Great, seems 
not to have been regular, or fixed by any certain rules ; yet the prin- 
ces came to their thrones with little difficulty, and pursued the gene- 
ral features of that wise policy which Peter adopted. The great 
object constantly kept in view, was the advancement of civihzation 
and knowledge among the people. 

26. Anne, duchess of Courland, next ascended the throne, 
in 1730, the male line of the house of Romanow, to which 
Peter the Great belonged, having become extinct. She was 
a niece of that monarch. Her reign was glorious and happy, 
and comprised the war against Turkey, in 1736 ; the con- 
quest of the principal towns in Crim Tartary ; and the vic- 
tor)^ of Choczim over the Turks, in 1739. 

27. On the death of Anne, Ivan, or John, only about two 
month's old, was elected emperor, 1740 ; but the next year 
a sudden revolution took place, by which the young prince 
was deposed, and Ehzabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, 
was proclaimed empress. 

There were strong points of resemblance between her and 
her father, and like him, she seemed to possess an inherent 
capacity for reigning. She united benevolence w^ith great 
pohtical talents, and to her, Russia is indebted for much of 
Its influence in the affairs of Europe and Asia. In 1757, 
her troops, in conjunction with those of Austria, entered upon 
" the seven years' war" against the great Frederick, and her 
part was so well acted, that had she lived, the Prussian mo- 
narchy would probably have been in jeopardy, as to its very 
existence. 

§ Elizabeth founded the universities of Petersburgh and Moscow, 
and decreed a new code of laws, called Elizabeth's code. It is re- 
ported that a few years preceding her death, this princess indulged 
in the most unbounded intemperance and sensuality. 

28. She was succeeded, in 1762, by her nephew, Peter III., 
son of her elder sister Anne, and consequently grandson of 
the great Peter. He was at first somewhat popular with his 
subjects, but they soon became disaffected towards him. He 
was found to be deficient in talents and strength of charac- 
ter ; and his wife, Catharine, becoming disgusted w4th him, 
and inspiied with ambitious views, is supposed to have been 



288 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X. 

the mover of the conspiracy by which he was dethroned and 
murdered, in the first year of his reign. 

§ Catharine of Anhalt, a princess of Germany, had been married 
to Peter several years before his accession ; and as she began her 
political life with crime, she seems never afterwards to have been 
scrupulous as to the means with which she executed her plans. It 
was by the help of her paramour Orloff, that she arrested the em- 
peror, and procured his deposition and death. Orloff first gave him 
poisoned brandy to drink, and then strangled him. 

29. Catharine II., who was immediately proclaimed, com- 
bined with her singular depravation of principle, a powerful 
intellect. As a woman, she was a disgrace to her sex and to 
human nature, but as an empress she was great, and justly 
denominated " the Semiramis of the North." Her reign was 
brilliant and long, and at once the admiration and terror of 
all Europe. Notwithstanding the great extent of her empire, 
she sought continually to enlarge its boundaries. In her 
wars with Turkey, Persia, and Poland, she secured immense 
acquisitions of territory. Her transactions in regard to the 
dismemberment of Poland, have already been related. In 
regard to Turkey, her object appears to have been nothing 
less than the possession of the Ottoman throne in Europe — 
an object which Russia has ever since had at heart. 

§ One of the victorious wars which Catharine carried on with 
Turkey, cost her two hundred thousand men, and 200,000,000 rubles ; 
while it cost the latter three hundred and thirty thousand men, and 
200,000,000 piastres — a war scarcely less ruinous than triumphant. 
In this war, Ismail was the last town that surrendered. Twice 
were the Russians under Suwarrow repulsed ; but at the third at- 
tack, they scaled the ramparts, forced their way into the place, and 
put to the sword all who opposed them. Fifteen thousand Russians 
purchased with their lives the bloody laurels of their leader, who 
wrote to the empress with his usual brevity, " The haughty Ismail 
is at your feet." 

30. Catharine was succeeded by her son, Paul Petrowitz, 
1796, whose reign Wits the reverse of that of his mother, and 
who occupied himself with trifles. In 1799, he declared war 
against revolutionary France, and sent Suwarrow into Italy, 
who met with great success till he passed into Switzerland, 
whence he was recalled by his sovereign. In 1801, Paul 
declared war against England, and obliged Sweden and 
Denmark to join; but soon afterwards this unhappy monarch 
was strangled, by some conspirators, who were ofi[icers in 
his court. 



RUSSIA. 289 

31. Alexander I., the eldest son of Paul, was proclaimed 
in 1801, at the age of twenty-two. His name will descend 
with renown to after ages, as the deliverer of enthralled 
nations. His reign was at first pacific, nor did he make those 
eflforts against France, which seemed desirable at that junc- 
ture. He, however, became alarmed at length by the am- 
bition of Bonaparte, and in 1805, formed a coalition with 
Austria, against the conqueror. 

He was able to effect a junction with only a remnant of 
the Austrian forces, which had previously been deserted, and 
being attacked unexpectedly at Austerlitz, he experienced a 
signal overthrow. He then withdrew his army into Russia, 
but designing to assist Prussia, the next year he hastened to 
the scene of war ; but before his army could reach it, the 
battle of Jena had been fought, and the power of Prussia half 
annihilated. Russia left alone en the field, maintained the 
contest with the French emperor for a few months, during 
which several sanguinary battles were fought, without any 
decisive advantage on either side. At length the fatal battle 
of Friedland, obliged Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit 

In 1808, he engaged in a war with Sweden, in which Fin- 
land was conquered, and in 1811, he commenced hostilities 
against Turkey. At this critical time, a mighty contest was 
about to ensue, which was to decide the fate of a great part 
of the globe. The refusal of Alexander, in 1812, to concur 
in Bonaparte's scheme, of excluding British commerce from 
the whole European continent, highly displeased the latter. 
This circumstance, concurring with the French emperor's de- 
sire to establish an universal monarchy, induced him to march 
against Russia, with all the force of the territories under his 
dominion, and of every state rendered subservient to his 
views. *^In that way," says Prof Heeren, "a storm of na- 
tions arose, (about twenty were united under the standard of 
the conqueror,) unparalleled in history, since the expeditions of 
Xerxes and Attila." The Russians retreated steadily before 
the French, not without engaging in several bloody battles, 
in which the French were victorious, but by means of which 
they were continually weakened. 

At Borodino, a few miles in advance of Moscow, the Rus- 
sians made a stand, and here was fought one of the most 
terrible battles ever recorded. The loss on both sides wad 

25 



290 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

nearly equal ; the Russians, however, retired, and the French 
entered Moscow. But they entered it to witness its confla- 
gration ; the Russians had set it on fire, and thus deprived 
the French army of its expected winter quarters. It was 
obliged to retreat ; and the animosity of the Russians, aided 
by the terrible severity of the weather, contributed almost to 
annihilate the most efficient military force that ever invaded 
a nation. 

§ Upon the invasion of his dominions, Alexander soon made peace 
with the Turks, and this on advantageous terms, as has always been 
the case in the wars between Russia and Turkey. Alexander might 
have met his foe with an equal number of nations, if he had had 
time to summon them from the mountains and deserts of Asia. All 
his troops, divided into three armies, by no means equalled, in num- 
ber, those of the enemy, which amounted to more than half a mil- 
lion. But although the collection of the Russian force was only 
partially effected, yet there was a high moral preparation in the spirit, 
both of the prince and his people. After one conspiracy in the be- 
ginning of the contest was detected, and its authors summarily pun- 
ished, all orders of the people manifested the most determined pur- 
pose to resist the enemy, submitting to sacrifices, which nothing but 
devoted patriotism and the deadliest hatred of the invader, could in- 
spire. Alexander, in his manifesto, declared that he would never 
make peace, so long as the enemy remained within his empire. And 
to engage God and religion on the side of Russia, one entire conse- 
cration of the empire and of the church, was made to the God of 
armies. 

The constant retiring of the Russians, without risking a great bat- 
tle, greatly weakened the expectation indulged by Bonaparte, of 
speedily terminating the war, by penetrating into the heart of the 
empire. Fire and rapine, by friends and foes, marked the course of 
the invading army, and seemed to render return impossible. Wilna 
was occupied the 28th of June. The French advanced with many 
skirmishes by way of Witepsk to Smolensk, where two of the Rus- 
sian armies formed a junction, August 6th, while the Prussian aux- 
iliaries besieged Riga, and the Austrians were manoeuvering in Vol- 
hynia. Smolenk was stormed and destroyed, August 18th ; after 
which, Koutousoff was vested with the chief command. After the 
battle of Borodino, the solitary capital was entered, September 14th 
and 15th. In the Kremlin, the ancient residence of the Czars, the 
conqueror took up his head quarters, the limit of his expedition, and 
the grave of his greatness. 

Moscow, fired by its own citizens, fell a victim for the empire ; for 
Rich a drama demanded such a catastrophe ; but in its pillars of fire, 
the first dawn of freedom shone over shackled Europe in the farthest 
East. Instead of a Capua, the army suddenly stood in a waste. 
" The campaign may now end," was the proposal of Napoleon ; " the 
campaign is now beginning," was the reply of Koutousoff. A spee- 



RUSSIA. 291 

^y retreat, before the beginning of the winter's cold, might, perhaps, 
have saved the army ; but the pride of the conqueror disdained this 
measure, till it was too late. When three-fourths of Moscow were 
consumed to the ground, just as the fatigued and debilitated army of 
the French entered it, needing repose and refreshment, and an un- 
conquerable Russian army was before it, it was impossible for Na- 
poleon to stay there. Never was a disappointment more sudden and 
more bitter. The retreat which he had declined, he was obliged to 
undertake, and such a retreat, so disastrous and terrific, history never 
before recorded. 

32. Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the boundaries 
of his einpire, and thus gave the signal for the emancipation 
of Europe. He first exhorted Prussia to war. She obeyed 
the call, and others, the late vassals of France, sooner or later, 
joined his standard. "From this tijne the storm of nations, 
which had gathered in the west, against the east, was to be 
turned from the east against the west." An immediate erup- 
tion w^as prevented, by the fortresses and countries which were 
occupied by the relations of the rulers, and the certainty that 
Napoleon had himself escaped. But in the nature of the 
case, it could not be long ere the subjugated nations should 
turn upon their filling master. Austria was the last to join 
the alliance ; her weight in the scale w^as decisive. 

The campaign of 1813, which thus began, is one of the 
most memorable in history. Never were more battles fought 
within a given space of time, and never were greater than 
some of them. In regard to the battle of Leipsic, which fin- 
ished the campaign, Heeren says, " If the mass of combat- 
ants, almost half a million, met on the field, makes it the first 
battle of modern times, its consequences do so no less." The 
way was now opened to France itself, in the signal defeat of 
the French emperor. Accordingly, in the beginning of the 
year 1814, the respective sovereigns entered Paris, dethroned 
Napoleon, and replaced on the throne the house of Bourbon. 
The renown of Alexander w^as now complete, as the provi- 
dential deliverer of Europe. 

§ This prince deceased 1st December, 1825, and was succeeded by 
Nicholas 1. 

The character of Alexander, will appear with advantage on the 
page of history, and his success in saving Russia and Europe, from 
the grasp of military ambition, will consecrate his name as the most 
fortunate of sovereigns. The circumstances under which he enter- 
ed upon his reign, were, indeed, calculated fully to bring into action 
all his faculties. Though inferior to his great antagonist in native 



292 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

intellectual power, he was, perhaps, of all the European sovereigns^ 
the most fit, by his indefatigable spirit, to contend with him^ He 
appears to have been guided mainly by a principle of honesty ; and 
if several private accounts are to be credited, there are pleasing in- 
dications, that he was one of the very few princes who can be called 
truly religious. The most inexplicable part of his character, in a 
moral view, was his suppression of the Russian Bible Society, which 
had, a few years before, commenced under his own auspices. 

Since the event, which we have mentioned as the termination of 
the tenth period, the affairs of the Russians have been generally pros- 
perous. Besides a successful conflict which they have maintained 
with Persia, they have rushed into war recently, with their old ene- 
mies, the Turks ; and although the present is the second campaign, 
they have been met with so vigorous a spirit, on the part of the lat- 
ter, under their warlike sultan, Mahmoud II., that the issue of the 
contest seems somewhat doubtful. Russia puts forth her whole 
power, and Turkey fights for her existence. Russian successes have, 
of late, been reported ; but it is altogether probable, that other cam- 
paigns* will be necessary, in order to drive the Ottomans into Asia, 
should the other great powers of Europe suffer the contest to con- 
tinue. 

ENGLAND. 

House of Brunswick, 

33. George I., Elector of Hanover, had been proclaimed 
king, by the regency, on the death of Anne, 1714. At the 
commencement of the present period, he had, therefore, been 
on the throne about four years. Notwithstanding the divided 
state of the kingdom, the accession of George took place 
without the least opposition, tumult, or sign of popular dis- 
content. 

It was protestantism that gave the house of Brunswick the 
throne, and it was protestantism that was to preserve it to 
them. No new maxims, no new continental policy, could 
therefore become prevalent ; it was the ancient policy of Wil- 
liam III., modified according to the circumstances of the times. 
Thus harmony was established between the nation and the 
government ; and fortunately for the new house, there was 
for a long time yet, a pretender, who did not permit these 
maxims to be forgotten. 

* Since the above was penned, a series of splendid victories has attended 
the Russian arms, in consequence of which, a peace has been concluded be- 
tween the contending powers, on terms exceedingly humiliating to the Turks, 



ENGLAND. 



293 



The natural consequence of this policy was, the fall of the 
tory ministry, which had made itself more than suspected by 
its conduct towards the pretender, and the restoration of the 
superiority of the whigs. 

§ George I., was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, 
and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., and was in the 55th year 
of his age, when he ascended the throne. 

The Pretender, who was styled the Chevalier St. George, was the 
son of James II. His exclusion from the throne affected the public 
tranquillity, for a time. He had his partisans chiefly among the to- 
ries, and in Scotland ; but the several attempts which they made in 
his behalf, were ineffectual ; his intrigues were detected ; his forces 
were overpowered in battle ; many of the leaders among the rebels 
were captured and executed ; but the chevalier had the good fortune 
to escape to France. 

34. In 1720, the king having recommended to the com- 
mons the consideration of proper means for lessening the na- 
tional debt, this proved a prelude to the famous South Sea 
act, which became so ruinous in its consequences. In this 
scheme, it was beheved possible speedily to perform by art, 
what can be the result only of continued exertion — the hqui- 
dation of tlie public debt ; but the projects of the South Sea 
company foundered, and thousands were involved in ruin. 
As the English government, however, allowed itself no des- 
potic steps, its credit was preserved entire ; and it found itself 
able, by a diminution of interest, to establish a sinking fund, 
which only needed a better administration, to effect its object. 

§ The character of George I. was that of a wise and good mo- 
narch, but he was less popular than he might have been, had he staid 
more at home, and manifested less partiality for his German domi- 
nions. 

He died suddenly, of a paralytic disorder, on the continent, in the 
68th year of his age. 

34. George IT., succeeded his father, 1727, and, like him> 
favoured the whigs, and was strongly attached to his German 
possessions. His character was that of an active, intelhgent 
prince, possessing a violent temper, and a love of war. His 
administration of affairs was generally equitable, and satisfac- 
tory to the people. A period of peace, during ten years, in 
the former part of his reign, happily occurred through want 
of a plausible pretence for embarking in a war. At length, 
occasion was found for colhsion with Spain, and war was 
declared in 1739. It produced no important results. In 1744, 
England declared war against France, and assisted Maria 

25* 



294 • MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

Theresa, of Austria, in the war of succession. In this pubKc 
contest, the principal states of Europe were involved ; and 
among others, the battles of Dettingen and Fontenoy were 
fought ; the former terminating in favour of the allies, the 
latter in favour of the French. The British king command- 
ed, in person, his army on the continent. 

§The minister who guided the destinies of England, during this 
part of the reign of George IL, as also during the principal part of 
the former, was Sir Robert Walpole. Concerning him, the his- 
toric professor of Gottingen says, "that without the restless ac- 
tivity which is often called greatness, he was a statesman most wor- 
thy of respect. He introduced uprightness into politics, at a time, 
when they were disgraced by the profligate Dubois, and the false 
Alberoni. But his maxim, to be on good terms with all, entangled 
him in a web of negociations and relations ; from which, only an 
island state, like England, could have disengaged itself." Others, 
however, speak of him as distinguished for tlie system of corruption 
and venality which he practised in his administration. 

35. During the absence of the king on the continent, the 
rebellion in Scotland, 1745, took place, in consequence of an 
effort made by the son of the old pretender, for the British 
throne. The young Charles was assisted by Louis XV., 
and having landed in Scotland, led an army against the royal 
forces, which he defeated in the battles of Preston Pans, and 
Falkirk ; but in the subsequent battle of Culloden, be met 
with a decisive overthrow. The Stuart family made no more 
attempts to take possession of the sceptre v>inch they had losL 

In 1755, war was renewed between France and England, 
on account of encroachments made on the British territories 
in North America. The war was not at first very fortunate 
to the British ; but, at length, they met witli signal success, 
and the result of it was, the surrender of all Canada, on the 
part of the French. It was in this war, that the brave Wolfe 
perished, having distinguished himself by the capture ol the 
city of Quebec. 

§ In the expedition against Quebec, the courage and perseverance 
of General Wolfe, surmounted incredible difficulties. It was on the 
Heights of Abraham, which he succeeded in gaining, that he fought 
and defeated the French army. As he occupied a conspicuous 
station in the front of the line, he had been aimed at by the enemy's 
marksmen, and received a shot in the wrist. Wrapping a handker- 
chief round his hand, he gave his orders, as usual, without betraying 
the least emotion ; and while he was advancing, at the head of the 
grenadiers, another ball, unfortunately, pierced the breast of thi« 



ENGLAND. 296 

young hero, who thus fell at the moment when victory was annouiir 
ced. His death was mourned as a national loss. 

36. At this period, the arms of Great Britain were trium- 
phant in every quarter of the globe ; but in the midst of his 
successes, the old king suddenly expired, in the 77th year of 
his age, and in the 34th of his reign. 

37. George III., grandson of the deceased, succeeded him 
in 1760. He was then in his eighteenth year, and swayed 
the sceptre during the long period of sixty years ; the longest 
reign in the annals of Great Britain. It is distinguished as 
a period of important events, and of the nation's advance- 
ment in power, w^ealth, commerce, and the arts. The re- 
sources of the British, in their great contests, during this 
reign, appear to have been almost inexhaustible. 

George 111. commenced his reign at a favourable period, 
when the arms of the nation were triumphant, and when 
Chatham, the ablest and most popular of the British minis- 
ters, administered the government. His ministry, which be- 
gan under the former reign, continued from the 20th of Octo- 
ber, 1756, to the 5th of October, 1761. 

§ " What five years !" says Heeren. " By the greatness of his 
own character, he elevated the spirit of his nation, for he was the 
first to breathe into it a confidence in itself." Upon the resignation 
of Mr. Pitt, violent political dissensions arose, which were afterwards 
increased, upon the retirement of the duke of Newcastle. 

38. An ill-judged course of policy, pursued by the ministry 
towards the American colonies, gave rise to those animosities, 
which ended in tlie separation of the colonies from the mother 
country. H^his colonial war commenced in 1775. The elo- 
quence of Chatham was arrayed against the unjust and op- 
pressive measures of the British parliament. But his coun- 
sels were overruled, and after a long and distressing conten- 
tion with tlie American states, Great Britain acknow^ledged 
their independence in 1783. Thus was laid the foundation 
of a great and rising empire in the new w^orld, which bids 
fair, in time, to rival the most renowned nations of Europe, 
and of antiquity. Antecedently to this contention, party 
spirit had becom.e general and violent in Great Britain, and 
produced frequent changes in public men and measures. 

§ In the colonial war, France and Holland, after a time, formed an 
alliance with the American government, and took part in the con- 
tention. Though England thus lost important foreign possessions, 



S^S MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

and increased her public debt, (from 146,000,000, to 257,000,000^ 
sterling,) yet she lost nothing in her contest with other powers; her 
commerce and resources were constantly extending, and her spirit 
was equal to every effort. 

39. Another important feature of this reign, was the ex- 
tension of the British possessions in India. The British East 
India Company, before the year 1766, conquered, and took 
possession of the kingdom of Bengal, together with Bahar 
and part of Orissa, a large and flourishing country, contain- 
ing above 10,000,000 of people, and producing an immense 
revenue. These territories, afterwards, received a very great 
addition, as the fruits of several wars, which the Company 
had with the natives. Hyder Ally, and afterwards Tippoo, 
his son, distinguished themselves by their opposition to the 
British encroachments, but they were obliged to submit to 
superior prowess. 

§ Tippoo was vanquished by Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, and de- 
prived of one half of his dominions. In 1799, Seringapatam, the 
capital of Mysore, was taken by Gen. Harris, and Tippoo was slain. 

40. The Irish rebellion, in 1798, and the subsequent union, 
in 1800, of Ireland and Great Britain, were also important 
events during this reign. The rebels in Ireland were princi- 
pally Romanists, the most numerous and least favoured part of 
the Irish population, whom the spirit of the French revolution 
had at this time affected. The Act of Union was the favour- 
ite object of Mr. Pitt, and made Ireland an integral part of 
the British empire. From the danger of the separation of 
Ireland from the British sovereignty, the ministry and the par- 
liament, both had been urged to this project of a legislative 
incorporation ; and in the anxiety which was felt, were less 
scrupulous as to the means of securing a majority in both 
houses, than became the dignity of the empire. For this object, 
the arts of corruption were employed. The effects of the 
wnion, however, have been mutually advantageous. 

§ A spirit of discontent and revolution, had been working for a 
long time, in the minds of the Irish people. This was inflamed, by 
the countenance which the government of France had given to cer- 
tain insurrectionary projects. With a view to effect a separation 
from England, and form a close connexion with France, several at- 
tempts were made on the part of the French, to land troops in Ire- 
land ; but these attempts proved abortive. The French fleets wero 
either dispersed by storms, or defeated by the valour of the British 
admirals, Duncan and Warren. 

In the summer of 1798, the spirit of revolution had arisen to such 



ENGLAND. 297 

a height, that several counties were in a state of insurrection. Lord 
Cornwallis was now appointed lord lieutenant, and took command 
of the government's forces. He engaged the rebels, on several oc- 
casions, and many lives were lost. Pursued by the vigilance of the 
government, and despairing of foreign succour, they at last submit- 
ted. Some of them suffered punishment, others emigrated to 
America. 

41. The reign of George III., was particularly distinguish- 
ed, by the wars which grew out of the French revolution. 
This great event, which will be more particularly noticed in 
the history of France, commenced in 1789. It threatened 
in its consequences, the overthrow of all established govern- 
ments, and deeply convulsed the whole civihzed world. From 
the commencement of the revolution, to the restoration of the 
Bourbons, in 1815, Europe endured more, in the loss of lives 
and property, and suffered more misery, than in any other 
equal portion of time, since it has been known in history. 

§ The government of Great Britain, early conceiving a just alarm 
for its own safety, zealously embarked in the European war, with a 
view to check the dissemination of disorganizing principles, both at 
home and abroad. All the Christian states in Europe, opposed in 
their turn, the tyranny and ambitions views of France ; but Great 
Britain only pursued the object with undeviating constancy, and 
with a just conception of tlie character of the common enemy. Wil- 
liam Pitt, one of the ablest ministers which it ever had, was then al 
its head. Under his auspices, after various vicissitudes of disap- 
pointment and success, victory crowned the efforts and sacrifices of 
the British nation ; efforts and sacrifices, of which history does not, 
perhaps, record a second example. All Europe was arrayed against 
her at times ; yet, so far was she from being intimidated, or dis- 
heartened, that she met the enemy, whether on the sea or land, 
wherever he was to be found. Her greatest efforts, particularly in 
the former part of the war, were made on the sea. Here Nelson, the 
first of naval captains, gained the battles of the Nile, Copenhagen, 
and Trafalgar, and almost annihilated the maritime power of the 
continent. In the latter part of the contention, Wellington conquer- 
ed the armies of France, at Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and 
Waterloo. 

An interval of peace occurred between the years 1801 and 1803L 
But this short suspension of arms, was felt to be too long for the 
safety of the British government, while the emperor of France 
seemed to set no bounds to his ambition. The war was accordingly 
renewed ; and though, on the part of the French, the invasion of 
England was threatened, and her commerce was designed to be ex- 
cluded from the whole continent, yet one of the projects was abaiv- 
doned, and the other proved fruitless. 

In the battle of the Nile, which happened August 1, 1798, the ina» 



298 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

ritime fame of Great Britain was established beyond all competition. 
The French fleet ha^ every advantage of situation, but Nelson cap- 
tured nine ships of the line, and destroyed several others. In the 
battle of Trafalgar, which was fought on the 21st of October, 1805, 
the great English hero defeated a powerful fleet of the enemy, con- 
sisting of thirty-three ships of the line. His own force amounted 
to twenty-seven ships of the line. Nineteen of the French and Span- 
ish ships were captured, though four of them only reached port, the 
rest having been purposely destroyed, as it was impossible to take 
care of them on account of tempestuous weather. Subsequently, 
the greater part of the enemy's ships which escaped, were either 
wrecked or captured. The day of this great triumph to the Eng- 
lish admiral, was the day of his death. His person was much ex- 
posed in the battle, and being observed by the enemy, he was point- 
edly assailed by the musketry, and received a mortal wound. 

42. While the resources of Great Britain were called forth 
in the great European contest, she found, or made an enemy 
in the United States of America. The long depending dis- 
putes between the two nations, respecting commercial rights, 
terminated in hostilities, which were commenced on the part 
•of the United States, in the summer of 1812, by an attack 
on Canada. This war, though not very vigorously prosecu- 
ted, inasmuch as the affairs of Europe engrossed the attention 
of the British ministers, was, nevertheless, marked by uncom- 
mon acrimony. It continued until the last of the year 1814. 

43. During the last ten years of the reign of George III., 
he. was reduced to helplessness, by an inveterate insanity. 
In the meantime, his son, the prince of Wales, acted as re- 
gent. In regard to the great contest, the latter pursued the 
course which had been adopted by his royal father. 

§ The old king died on the 29th of January, 1820. The subver- 
sion of his intellect, is supposed to have been brought on, by the 
sickness and death of his youngest daughter, Amelia, aided by the 
advance of age, and the toils and anxieties of state. Amelia, when 
sensible of her approaching dissolution, presented to him a ring, re- 
questing him to wear it in remembrance of her affection. This ten- 
der incident, created a sympathy which soon mastered his faculties, 
and he gave way to an incurable despondency. He was a good 
monarch, seemed to be guided by religious principle, and was ho- 
noured and beloved, as the father of his people. His natural endow- 
ments were not great, though he possessed good sense, and a culti- 
vated mind. 

His successor, the present king, is George IV., who has, hitherto^ 
generally reigned in peace and prosperity. The only war of any 
consequence which has occurred during his reign, is that which was 
carried on a few years since in the East. By this, the British pes- 



FRANCE. 299 

sessions have been immensely enlarged, particularly by a reduction 
of a considerable part of the Burman empire. To the above we 
may add, the single battle of Navarino, against the Turkish fleet, in 
connexion with the naval forces of France and Russia. 

FRANCE. 

House of Bourbon. — Revolution. — Napoleon. — Bourho7is 
restored. 

43. The successor of Louis XIY. was a great grandson, 
who ascended the throne under the title of Louis XV., at the 
age of five years, 1715 A. C. Contrary to the will of the 
old king, his nephew, PhiHp of Orleans, obtained the regency. 

§ Without morals, and without sense of shame, the duke of Orleans 
was regarded as more profligate tlian he actually was,' and the long 
continued anxiety respecting the life of the young king, who was 
sickly, had a strong influence on the politics of the times. Cor- 
ruption of manners was a natural consequence of such a regency, 
and the French court was never more dissolute than at this time. 

It was during this regency, that France made an abortive attempt 
to pay off" its debts by means of the paper bank law, and the Missis- 
sippi scheme, connected with it. These were of no small conse- 
Ciuence for its future fate, and its whole influence in the European 
political system. The ruin of thousands of families might be re- 
paired in time, but it was the arbitrary money operations of the go- 
vernment, that reduced its credit to irrevocable ruin. From this 
time, no paper money could be issued in France, under the old con- 
stitution. The French financial system was ever after in an unset- 
tled state. 

44. The minister whom Louis chose soon after he came 
of age, was cardinal Fleury, whose seventeen years' admi- 
nistration, if it was not free from faults in the interior, secu- 
red tranquillity to France, and was beneficial to Europe. 

The reign of Louis, which was fifty-nine years, was too 
long for his reputation as a sovereign, and for the happiness 
of his people. He was at first styled well-beloved by them, 
but they had occasion eventually to lay aside that flattering 
epithet. 

§ Louis pursued a long course of rapacity, profusion, and tyran- 
ny, and in the latter part of his reign, he became infamously licen- 
tious and debauched. He was the slave of his mistresses, and his 
government was a government of mistresses. The last epoch of his 
reign, may be compared to what has been mythologically de- 
nominated the iron age. He became insensible, not only to the 
disgrace and ruin of his state, but to the loss of his nearest and 



800 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

dearest relatives, many of whom deceased during the latter 
part of his life. 

It is said, that the profusion of this monarch, led him, in the first 
Instance, to undertake the scandalous traffic of a monopoly of corn, 
which, while it starved his subjects, enabled him to support the ex- 
travagant claims of his minions and mistresses. It is at least certain, 
that at his demise, 200,000,000 of livres, in specie, were found in his 
private treasury, and that their acquisition could be traced to no other 
source. It is no matter of surprise, that the vices and errors of Louis, 
particularly his extortions, should have produced difficulties between 
him and his people. These were manifested in the disputes which 
he carried on with his parliaments, and in the opposition which they 
expressed against his rapacious acts. He conducted the controversy, 
on his part, in so ill-judged and unjust a manner, that affairs grew 
worse and worse, and fast ripened for that dreadful state of things 
which followed under his unfortunate successor. 

The aggregate of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., is one 
hundred and thirty-one years, which is unparalleled in history. Du- 
ring so long a period, what treasures were drawn from the French 
people, in consequence of the ambitious wars of the one, and the 
profusion and fiscal mismanagement of the other ! And is it to be 
wondered at, that they felt their burdens to be insupportable ? 

45. Louis XVL, who was grandson of the late king, as- 
cended the throne in 1774, at the age of twenty years. His 
situation, from the first, was critical and dangerous, beyond 
tlie common lot of kings. With a temper fitted to make a 
people happy in ordinary circumstances, he was ill calculated 
for the evil days on w4iich he was fallen, when his subjects 
were almost maddened by the oppression of their former mas- 
ter, and now unreasonably jealous of his successor. 

§ Louis seemed to aim at a prudent and conciliatory course. He 
eiarly made some removals from office, that were designed to be po- 
pular, and sought integrity and talents in his ministers. Turgot, 
Keeker, and Calonne, were successively placed at the head of the 
finances. 

After the efforts made by France in favour of American indepen- 
dence, and the consequent great increase of her debt, her financial 
situation became alarming, and demanded attention. The disclo- 
mires and discussions on this subject, led directly to the great con- 
vulsion which followed. There were other concurrent causes, such 
«s the corruption of religion, and the abuses which existed in the 
church ; the despotism and profligacy of the government ; the ine- 
quality, and the enormous burden of taxation ; the hauteur and 
odious privileges of the nobility and clergy ; the notions respecting 
liberty and equal rights, generated by the revolution in America, and 
especially the progress of philosophy, freethinking, and atheism, 
which the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and others, so effectually 
ftided. These^ and perhaps other causes combined, threw a great 



FRANCE. 301 

nation into madness, and created a revolution which rocked the 
world. 

A state of things arose not only in France, but among all civilized 
nations, very different from any which ever existed before. " The 
contemporary world, which lived in this period," says professor 
Heeren, " calls it the revolutionary ; it is as yet, too early to decide 
with what name it shall be denoted by posterity, after the lapse of a 
century ; probably, the conslhutionai ; for the struggle after regular, 
but free constitutions, is the thread that guides through the whole 
confusion." 

46. Our limits preclude a minute account of the revolution 
which was now about to buist forth. Suffice it to say, that 
the operations of government being nearly suspended for want 
of supplies, the king was induced to convoke, first an assem- 
bly of the notables, next the parliament, and afterwards, the 
parliament and notables together ; but nothing was effected 
bv their measures. At last, the convocation of the stateG-o^ene- 
ral. May 5th, L7S9, w^as resorted to ; but difficidties arising 
between tlie branches of which it w as composed, the popular 
branch soon declared themselves the representatives of the 
people, and constituted the National Assembly. Concihatory 
as the language of the king hod been, the measures of this 
body were dictated by a spirit of opposition to his prerogatives. 

The revolution, properly speaking, began W'ith the destruc- 
tion of the ancient prison of the state, tlie Bastile, 14th July, 
1789. This was followed by other excesses on the part of 
the populace, till Paris became a field of blood. 

§ The Stales General consisted of three orders — nobility, clergy, 
and the " tiers etat" or commons. With the commons, a small portion 
of the nobility and clergy united in calling themselves a national 
assembly. When this measure was adopted, there actually remain- 
ed of the monarchy only the name. The king and the royal family 
were obliged to yield to tlie popular feeling, which demanded their 
removal from Versailles to Paris. Here, however, the king was with 
difficulty preserved from violence, wliich the mob seemed inclined 
to offer to his person. He attempted to flee at one time, but his 
flight was intercepted. 

The progress made by the National Assembly at its earlier sit- 
tings, in the work of reform, was manifested by several important 
acts, such as the abolition of titles of nobility, and feudal rights — 
the exclusion of the clergy from all judicial functions— the suppres- 
sion of religious houses and vows — and the division of France into 
eighty-three departments. 

In the year 1790, those political societies began to appear, parti- 
cularly the Jacobin club, which controlled the measures of the As- 
sembly in so remarkable a degree. 

26 



302 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

47. Although Louis accepted the new constitution of 1791, 
which established the equality of all ranks, and was other- 
wise obsequious to the Assembly, yet the Jacobins were 
clamorous for the aboUtion of royalty ; and accordingly, the 
regal government was abolished, and France declared to be a 
republic, on the 21st of September, 1 792. This was done by 
a new body, called the National Convention, on the first day 
of its meeting. The views of the enemies of royalty, were 
not as yet, fully answered. For the king, nothing further 
was to remain, than in the language of Manuel the re- 
porter of the commune, " the right of justifying himself 
before the sovereign people." He and the royal family were 
immediately imprisoned in the temple. Soon after, he was 
brought to the bar of the Convention, and being condemned 
on several charges brought against him, he was sentenced to 
suffer death, by the axe of the guillotine, which took place on 
the 21st January, 1793. 

The fate of Louis has been widely commiserated. His 
character was that of an intelligent and inoffensive man, but 
he wanted firmness, to stem the torrent of faction. In death^ 
he displayed a manly dignity and fortitude. 

§ Among the charges alledged against the king, were, his having 
gupplied the enemies of France with money ; his being the author of 
the war waged on the French territory ; his having conspired against 
the liberty of the country, &c. &c. He answered the accusatious 
against him, in a self-possessed and dignified manner. 

The man who was the most influential in procuring the destru(v 
Cion of the king, was the Duke of Orleans, one of the princes of the 
blood, and a monster of wickedness. 

It was a sublime remark, made by the king's confessor to him, aj» 
he mounted the scaffold, on which he was executed, " Offspring of 
St. Louis," he said, " ascend to heaven." 

48. After the death of the king, the " reign of terror," a» 
it has been denominated, commenced in France, under the 
revolutionary tribunal erected by Robespierre and his associ- 
ates. Factions soon arose in the Convention, and their mu- 
tual jealousy led to the most fearful consequences. The san- 
gxiinary excesses of monsters in human form, which France 
for a long time was doomed to suffer, are too shocking to be 
described. Besides the countless massacres of the rich and 
noble, and generally of those who opposed the revolutionary 
fury, the parties in the Convention sought the destruction of 



FRANCE. 



30^ 



one another. Each successive faction, as it triumphed, wasr 
at length put down, and made to answer with blood, the cruel- 
ties wliicli it had committed. Thus these execrable wretches 
became the instruments of inflicting merited vengeance on 
one another. The Convention, in its acts, outraged decency, 
and rendered its infamy immortal, by renouncing the Chris- 
tian religion. The queen of France, Maria Antoinette, 
perished by the axe, 16th October, 1 793. Madame Elizabeth, 
sister of the late king, was beheaded 4th February, 1794. 

§ The human monster who exercised the longest and most terrific 
sway, was Robespierre, with his villanous acconipHces, at first Dan- 
ton and Marat, and afterwards Collot d'Herbois, Billand-Varennes, 
Conlthon, and St. Just. The party which was opposed to Robes- 
pierre in the Convention, called the Girondin, fell under his ruth- 
less domination. Among thorn was the infamous Orleans. He 
smiled at his condemnation, and made but one request, which was,, 
that his punishment should not be delayed until the following day. 
On his way to execution, he braved the insults of the multitude, 
whose contemptible idol he had so long been j and perished with- 
out the smallest remorse of conscience. 

Robespierre and his party, were at length put down, and of all 
the actors and victims of the revolution, he suffered the most in the 
circumstances of his death, and was the least pitied. In attempting 
to destroy himself with a pistol, he dreadfully mangled his jaw, and 
while overwhelmed with indescribable agony from the wound, he 
was conveyed to the place of execution, surrounded by a populace 
intoxicated with joy. With him perished eighty-three of his as- 
sociates. 

49. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin clubs were 
suppressed, and in the course of the succeeding year, 1795, 
Oct. 26th, the Convention closed its sittings, having been the 
means, in all probability, of more human suffering tlian any 
other deliberative body that ever met. Two days after, the 
executive power was vested in a Directory of five, and the 
legislative power in two Councils. 

50. While these transactions, which belong to the internal 
history of the revolution, were taking place, the external re- 
lations of France were seriously affected. The republic had 
waged a desperate war with the adjoining states, from nearly 
the commencement of the revolution. These states, particu- 
larly Austria and Prussia, took the part of Louis and his 
government, from natural sympathy, from a sense of danger, 
from resentment at the disorganizing principles which the 
revolutionists disseminated, and from the desire to restore 



301 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

tranquillity, and reinstate the king on his throne. The nu- 
merous emigrants also, consisting of the nobility, clergy, and 
rich citizens, who had been enabled to escape from the scene 
of blood, offered encouragement and aid. Accordingly, seve- 
ral armies marched to the borders of France, but the repub- 
lic, up to the time of the Directory, not only sustained itself 
against the efforts of its enemies, but made the conquest of 
the Netherlands, changed Holland, then perhaps the richest 
country in Europe, into a dependency of Fiance, and inva- 
ded Germany. Such was the energy of the republic, that 
alone, without allies, it had at command, one milUon of fight- 
ing men, in the year 1 794. 

51. The government of the Directory, continued till 1799^ 
when the executive power was vested in three consuls, 
of whom the first was Bonaparte, the second Cambaceres, 
and the third Le Brun. The Directory had been in several 
instances unfortunate in the field, and the consulate was de- 
signed to restore, and, as we shall soon see, did effectually re- 
store, the energy of the government. 

The series of hostile efforts, which the different states op- 
posed to France directed against that country, are termed 
coalitions. Including both republican and imperial France^ 
there were six of these coahtions with which she contended ; 
two under the former character, and four under the latter. In 
these combined efforts, all the nations of Europe Avere, at one 
time or another, engaged. 

The first of these coalitions, includes the wars already ad- 
verted to, and beginning in 1793, it continued till nearly 
the time of the consulate. In this coalition, England, Spain, 
and the Stadtholder, were included. France had declared 
war against these powers ; and indeed Portugal, Naples, 
Tuscany, and the Pope, were involved. 

§ William Pitt, was the founder and head of these combinations. 
" He was more correct than others in his estimate of the danger, 
and no less great in character than in talents, he never capitulated 
with political maxims. Whatever could be accomplished by gold 
and perseverance, he accomplished." This war was not merely a 
conflict of arms, but of clashing elements. An express decree of 
the Convention, announced the introduction of the sovereignty of the 
people, in every country which its armies should subdue. 

The nature of the warfare carried on by the combined powers, 
aroused in France a resistance of despair. This called forth, as has 
already appeared, a reign of terror, with all its cruelties, and all its 



FRANCE. 



305 



vigour, and sanctioned, at the same time, a maxim more momentous 
and fearful than a series of victories — that every citizen is a soldier. 

The success of France in this war, was signal. At length, some 
of the powers, as Prussia, Spain, and the grand duke of Tuscany, 
withdrew from the coalition, and made peace with the republic. The 
coalition, however, was not entirely dissolved. It was held together 
by British goM. A foreign commerce, embracing every quarter of 
the globe, and aided by an oppressive maritime law, oppressive to 
neutrals, supplied Great Britain, at this critical time, with wealth, 
which no other nation, ancient or modern, possessed in an equal de- 
gree. 

The war of the continent was carried on with the most vigour 
against Austria ; but the fate of Austria was not to be decided in 
(^rmany ; there, the archduke Charles repelled the armies of the 
republic. It was to be reached through Italy. This country, there- 
fore, became the principal theatre of the war, in 1796, 1797. Here, 
Napoleon Bonaparte, in his 27th year, first entered on the splendid 
and bloody career he was destined to run. To him the command of 
the army of Italy was intrusted, February 23d, 1796. One cam- 
paign gave him Italy ; the second, peace. This was the peace of 
Campo Formio. Out of the Austrian and Papal provinces in Italy, 
a new republic was formed, under the name of the Cisalpine Re- 
public. 

After the peace of Campo Formio, there was no suitable theatre 
in Europe, for the hero of the day. Egypt, the land of ancient won- 
ders, was invaded and seized by the conqueror of Italy, 1798. Pre- 
pared under the mask of an expedition against England, the execu- 
tion was yet more wonderful than the preparation. No undertaking 
ever created such immeasurable anxiety in England. Even the 
great naval victory at Aboukir, could not allay it, though that victo- 
ry produced important results. England, therefore, was determined 
not to rest, till Egypt should be torn from France. 

52. The second coalition was formed in 1799, by means of 
England and Russia. This was a consequence of the victo- 
ry of Aboukir. Austria, and some other powers, soon enga- 
ged in it, making it a more extensive combination than the 
preceding. Prussia, however, maintained its neutrality. Un- 
der the mismanagement of the directorial government of 
France, one campaign gave the victorious allies, Italy, Swit- 
zerland, and Germany ; but they were headed by the able 
archduke Chaiies, and the dreaded Suwarrow. 

§ A brief account of the situation of Switzerland will now be given, 
as here a convenient place is found. That country, in the heart of 
Europe, had succeeded for three hundred years in avoiding all parti- 
cipation in those great disputes in which the world had been involv- 
ed ; but it was destined to come within the vortex of the French re- 
volution. This country became agitated, and the revolution began 
in the Pays de Vaud, December, 1797. The evils of the federal consti* 

26* 



306 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

tution were disclosed ; there was a want of unity, and the burden 
at last fell almost exclusively on Berne. The French advanced on 
two sides, with bloody fights ; Berne was overpowered, March, 1798, 
and the other cantons were conquered, except the three smaller. 
These made an obstinate resistance, and an honourable capitulation. 
The consequence of the French military operations against Switzer- 
land was, that the Helvetian Republic was proclaimed, April, 1798. 
Then followed five unhappy years of war and faction, till the French 
act of mediation, 1803, restored to the Swiss, their federal, but alter- 
ed constitution. 

It was at the critical period, when the success of the alHes, 
and their approach towards the l^orders of France, excited such 
alarm for the fate of the republic, that Bonaparte i-eturned 
from Egypt and Syria, to Paris, and overthrew the directorial 
constitution. The directory abdicated ; the deputies of the 
people were driven asunder with clubs, and Bonaparte was 
appointed regent, as first consul. The most important results 
ensued. Factions were quelled ; internal enemies were over- 
awed ; tranquillity was restored; and new energy and life were 
infused into every department of the government. From this 
time, the popular sovereignty was at an end. The military 
force of the nation w^as put in a better train, and a series of 
victories and conquests commenced, which have no parallel 
in modern history. Before Bonuparte put himself at the head 
of the French armies, Russia had seceded from the coalition, 
and it was necessary to conquer only Austria, on the continent, 
feebly aided by Naples, and the south of Germany. The 
great battles of Marengo and llobenlinden, besides many 
smaller ones, brought Austria to terms, and led the way to 
the general peace of Amiens, 1802. This peace raised Bona- 
parte to the zenith of his renown. He was soon after elected 
first consul for hfe. x\t this epoch, he might have ruled Eu- 
rope, without further contests, had he been able to rule himself. 
Al3solute sovereignty only could suffice, and he was according- 
ly proclaimed empejor of France, in 1S04, to which, the next 
year, he added the title of king of Italy. This elevation w^as 
brought about in consequence of a now war, which had com- 
menced the preceding year, and wlich is soon to be spoken of. 
§ The peace of Amiens was enjoyed throughout Europe; but it 
was enjoyed only for a short time, riiis was to have been expected^ 
when the object for which the war had been waged by the coalition- 
ists, viz. the freedom of Europe, was farther than ever from being 
secured. Even England desired peace, inasmuch as she had effected 
the deliverance of Egypt. This was with her, after the failure of 



FRANCE. 307 

the general object, the turning point. She never could consent to 
see Egypt a colony of France. Egypt was restored to the Porte, in 
1800, by means of the successes of Abercrombie, and others. 

From the conflict which has been related, France had retired 
with its interior well ordered and tranquillized, with an increase of 
territory, and with the restoration of all its colonies. This seemed 
to be the work of Napoleon, together with the rebuilding of the al- 
tars, and the establishment of religious liberty. The project of an 
universal monarchy, was now in a fair way of being realized. 
Such a project. Napoleon doubtless had formed, but it was defeated 
by a concurrence of providential circumstances. No potentate in 
Europe ever had such resources at command. His sovereignty in the 
interior, was absolute. Abroad, France extended to the Rhine, and 
beyond the Alps, and the kingdom of Italy fell under Bonaparte's 
sceptre ; the rest of Italy, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, and the Ger- 
man states on the Rhine, were kept in dependence by alliances, or 
by fear, and Hanover was occupied by a French army, in the heart 
of the Prussian monarchy. 

53. The third coalition against France, vvas formed in 1805, 
by England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. England was 
its centre. A general rising of Europe was, according to 
Pitt's plan, to reduce France to its ancient bounds, and the in- 
dependence of the states was to be secured by judicious regu- 
lations and divisions. England liad been at war with France 
nearly two years before this combination, the peace of Amiens 
having continued between tliese nations scarcely a year. The 
coahtion was most unfortunate. The power of Austria was 
broken at Ulm, and at Austeihtz, and the peace of Presburg 
followed, 2()th December, 181)5. The expeditious movements 
of the French emperor, overthrew the whole plan of the 
allies. 

§ The war between England ond France alone, which commenced 
in 1803, was brought on by the refusal of England to give up the 
island of Malta, which is the bulwark of Egypt, and with that ivsland, 
the dominion of the Mediterranean. France would not concede 
these points. Though these nations were professedly at war, there 
were found few points of contact, as the one, at that time, had no 
power, except on the sea, and the other none except on land. Great 
Britain swept from the ocean, all the enemy's forces that could be 
found on that element, and recovered the colonies that had been re- 
stored to France. Before the conclusion of this war, it was, that 
the famous naval battle of Trafalgar was fought. 

The first instance of a royal family being dethroned, by a bare 
proclamation, occurred at Naples ; and Bonaparte, by placing his el- 
der brother, Joseph, on that throne, laid the foundation of the do- 
minion of his family in Europe. 



308 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

In this war, Prussia obstinately insisting on neutrality, was not to 
be gained. And yet, without the accession of this power, it was im- 
possible to make an efficient attack on France ; the northern half of 
which, was protected by Prussia's neutrality. The consequences, 
however, of the peace of Presburgh, revealed to Prussia, as well as 
to the rest of Europe, what was to be expected from the gigantic 
ambition of Napoleon. It was ascertained that neutrality could not 
be preserved, towards one who wished for none. Prussia stood di- 
rectly in the conqueror's way, and its neutrality was violated with- 
out hesitation, by the march of French troops through one of its 
provinces. That power began to make preparations after the war 
had been actually decided at Ulm and Austerlitz. When, however, 
the Prussian monarch found that according to the treaty of peace, 
the quiet of northern Germany was to be purchased, on the condi- 
tion that he was to cede to France several provinces, and occupy 
Hanover in return, thereby exposing himself to a war with England 
and Sweden, his embarrassment was extreme. But the scales turn- 
ed in favour of a war with France, and thus arose a new combi- 
nation, though the old one could hardly be said to have ceased, since 
Russia had not wholly retired from the field. 

54. A fourth coaliLion, as it may perhaps be numbered, 
was soon miitiired, 1806, which included Prussia, Russia, 
Austria, Sweden and England. Prussia, which began the 
war, was utterly overthrown by one battle, that at Jena and 
Auerstadt. Its capital was entered, and here Bonaparte is- 
sued the Berlin Decree, announcing the blockade of the British 
islands. The conqiieior's army passed into Poland, and the 
war was thus transferred from the banks of the Soal, to those 
of the Vistula, where Russia was under the necessity of de- 
fending its frontiers. In the course of this war, were fought 
the obstinate and bloody battles of Pultusk, Eylau, and 
Fri'edland, with the Russians. The last only was decisive, 
and led to a peace, which was concluded at Tilsit, 7th July, 
1807. Peace was concluded two days after with Prussia, by 
which about one half of the monarchy was returned, as a 
gift of charity, and this once potent nation, was reduced to a 
state of second rank. Russia gained a small accession of 
territory, but both nations agreed to close their harbours and 
countries against British navigation and trade. All was 
now French law or influence throughout continental Europe, 
and all was made to bear against Britain. 

§ By the peace of Tilsit, Russia had been made beforehand, not 
merely a spectator, but an active participator in the project of crush- 
ing Britain, by excluding it from all trade and communication with 
the continent. This was done by the secret articles of the peace. 



FRANCE. 309 

England, however, anticipated the enemy's dependance on the fleet of 
Denmark, and effected its surrender, by the bombardment of Copen- 
hagen. One consequence of this act was, a declaration of war by 
Russia against England, and another was an alliance of Denmark 
with France, which was to open to this latter power the road to 
Sweden. 

The Berlin Decree was met by the British Orders in Council, 
which prohibited every ship from entering any French port, or any 
port under French influence, under pain of confiscation. This was 
followed by the Decree of Warsaw, declaring that all British com- 
modities, in the Hanseatic cities, were confiscated, without respect of 
owners. This decree was retaliated by a strict blockade of the Elbe 
and the Weser, and by the Order in Council, declaring in blockade, 
all ports from which the British flag was excluded, and that all ships 
proceeding thither, should be captured, unless they had touched at a 
British port, and paid a duty. This was answered by the Decree of 
Milan, by which every ship which should submit to these conditions, 
was declared denationalized, and a lawful prize. Thus, neutral pow- 
ers could have no navigation. Afterwards, the mad Decree of Fon- 
tainebleau, consigned to the flames, all British manufactures from 
Naples to Holland, and from Spain to Germany. But Europe could 
not subsist under the operation of such measures. Industry was 
fatally paralized. 

55. Napoleon, triumphant and powerful, now wished to 
enlarge the donniiion of his family, hy appropriating to his 
remaining brothers, tlie thrones of Portugal and Spain. 
Spain was destined to receive his brother Joseph, whom Mu- 
ral, the emperor's brother-in-law, was to succeed in the king- 
dom of Naples. Louis Bonaparte had before been made 
king of Holland, and Jerome, king of WestphaUa. His de- 
sign on Portugal failed, though its throne was prostrated. A 
new and greater throne arose, on the other side of the ocean. 
Under a British convoy, the royal house of Portugal emi- 
grated to Brazil. His design on Spain succeeded for a time, 
by his having artfully secured the person of the Spanish mon- 
arch, and compelling him to resign his crown, in favour of 
Joseph Bonaparte, 20th June, 1808. 

This act, to say nothing of its moral character, was a political 
fault on the part of Napoleon ; the first fatal step which he took, 
towards his subsequent downfal. He had already the con- 
trol of Spain, by his influence. " It was done without a 
knowledge of the country and nation : an universal insur- 
rection having ensued, it opened the abyss which devoured 
alike, the French armies, and the French finances ; and it 
gave England a theatre for war. But it taught Europe that 



^10 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

the people are more powerful than mercenary armies, and it 
was destined to give frerdom to another quarter of the globe.* 
The British, who \x^ere called to the aid of Spain, in connex- 
ion with the Spanish forces, carried on the war from 1808, 
to 1813. Many battles were fought, in which the English- 
Spanish troops w^ere generally victorious. Here " the Marl- 
borough of the nineteenth century," began his brilliant career. 
The French were eventually driven out of the country. 

55. While the war in Spain, employed the best forces of 
the French empire, the insatiable conqueror meditated a new, 
greater, and more formidable w^ar. That was the war with 
Russia, in 1812 ; a war w4iich decided the destiny of Europe, 
It is unnecessary to repeat what has ah'eady been said con- 
cerning this terrible conflict, in the history of Russia. 

57. After Napoleon's defeat, he fled to Paris, and raising 
another army, he hoped to regain the dominion which he 
had lost in the east. To oppose him, the Fifth Coalition 
was formed, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, a part of 
the Confederation of the Rhine, and Sweden. Of this con- 
flict also, no particular mention need be made here, since the 
details have been given elsewhere. It may only be said, that 
the allies carried the war into the heart of France — that 
after much and strenuous fighting, they entered Paris, which 
capitulated, 30th March, 1814 — and that with the capital, 
France was conquered, because in France, the capital is 
every thing. 

58. The results of these successes of the allied powders, 
were important, and great changes took place. The situa- 
tion of Napoleon becoming extremely critical, he abdicated 
the throne of France, and was removed to the island of 
Elba. His mighty empire, reared by a military despotism, 
fell into ruins. And Louis XVIII. , after an absence of twen- 
ty-three years from his kingdom, returned and took possession 
of his rightful throne. 

§ Bonaparte had it in his power, while the allies held a congress 
at Chatillon, to preserve the throne and empire, had he been satis- 
fied with ancient France. But it was fortunate that he demanded 
too much, and even this, as an intercepted letter of his minister, 
Maret, afterwards showed, was only a deception. After his defeats 
in defending France, the senate, lately his slave, openly proposed the 
deposition of Bonaparte, and he himself, not without many useless 
attempts in favour of his son, descended from the falling throne. 



FRANCE. 311 

having executed an unconditional abdication on the part of himself 
and his heirs, 1st April, 1814. He was soon after escorted to Elba, 
which he received with full sovereignty, with a pension of two and 
a half millions from the revenues of France, and with a body guard 
of four hundred men, 

Louis XVIII. had spent his time in Italy, Germany, Russia, and 
finally England. The same month that restored to France her king, 
beheld three other princes, who had been driven from their thrones, 
ascend them again. — Pius VII., returned to Rome, Ferdinand VII. 
to Madrid, and Victor Emanuel to Turin. 

59. To restore the political system of Europe, which had 
been so completely subverted, a General Congress \va^ as- 
sembled at Vienna, 1st November, 1814. Six of the crowned 
heads of Europe were present, imited in peace as in war, 
with a long and splendid list of princes, ambassadors, and 
ministers. While they were engaged in their difficult and 
important deliberations, an event occinred which was the 
cause of the sixth and last coalition of the European powers. 
" The man of destiny" again made his appearance on the 
bloody arena where he had lately acted so conspicuous a part, 
but whence, it was hoped, he had been excluded forever. 
Having escaped from Elba, Bonaparte, after an unparralleled 
adventure, reached Paris, and re-seated himself on the im- 
perial throne. A temporary confusion ensued, but the result 
proved that the army, and not the nation, was the support of 
that throne. The great day of Waterloo, the 18th June, 
1815, buried the hopes of Napoleon Bonaparte in the dust. 

§ The French king, upon Bonaparte's return to Paris, withdrew to 
Lille, and afterwards to Ghent. He came back to his capital after 
an absence of one hundred days, and was the second time seated on 
his throne. 

In the whole career of Bonaparte, nothing was more extraordina- 
ry than his progress through France, and re-occupancy of the 
throne. He landed at Cannes, March 1st, 1815, and in twenty days 
from that time, accompanied with about fifteen hundred men, he 
reached, though without opposition, the scene of his former triumphs. 
No blood was spilt. The previous conspiracy seems not to have 
been very extensive, because the emperor could, and of course did, 
rely on the assistance of the troops. They received him with en- 
thusiastic shouts. The nation was held in mute astonishment for a 
time ; but it soon became evident that he had lost in a measure his 
influence over it. Instead of ruling the parties as formerly, he 
•eems to have been swayed by them. So much the more energetic 
were his warlike preparations — he could now indulge no hope of 
peace. 

It was a happy circumstance that the news of Napoleon's return, 



312 



MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 



reached the congress of Vienna, while still in session. The most 
prompt and decisive measures were adopted. By a special act, he 
was declared the enemy of the nations, and to have forfeited the 
protection of the laws. Almost every nation in Europe, small and 
great, combined against the usurper. The sum of all the contin- 
gents to be furnished, amounted to 1,057,400 fighting men. A Bri- 
tish-German and a Prussian army were assembled with the utmost 
speed, under Wellington and Blucher. Napoleon was equally active, 
and pressed forward across the boundaries with 170,000 men, 15th 
June, 1815. He first met "the gray hero" (Blucher,) at Ligny, 
who, after a bold resistance was forced back to Wavre. Meanwhile 
the army of Wellington was drawn up at Waterloo. Napoleon 
commenced the attack at noon, of the 18th .Tune, with a great su- 
periority. After an awful conflict, the victory was fluctuating at 
evening, when Blucher appeared with his auxiliaries, at the right 
crisis, and decided the battle. 

Bonaparte fled to Paris, abdicated anew in favour of his son, and 
after fruitless attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself 
to a British ship of the line; but instead of being permitted to land 
in England, as he wished, he was transported to the island of St. 
Helena, Oct. 16th, and was detained as a prisoner of war till his 
death, vvliich happened 5th May, 1821. 

Thus " on an island rock in the midst of the ocean, died, almost 
unnoticed, the man, whose name but a short space before, had filled 
the world. His plans were wrecked ; from the thraldom, which he 
was preparing for the nations, there sprang liberty in more than 
one quarter of the globe. Unknown to himself, he was but the in- 
strument of a higher power; for his objects were not its objects. 
W^hatever judgement posterity may pass on him, universal his 
tory can view him only from this point." He was the author of 
several valuable institutions, and effected some propitious changes, 
not only in France, but in the rest of Europe ; yet they were pur- 
chased at too dear a price— infinitely dearer tlian if he had taken 
W^ashington, and not Ca3sar, as his model. Like other great con- 
querors, he sacrificed the repose, liberty, and happiness of millions, 
to his insatiable ambition. 

France, having been conquered the second time, by the second 
taking of its capital, was required to indemnify the allies for their 
expenses and sacrifices. She was left a great and a powerful nation, 
little less diminished in territory than after the first pacification, 
which fixed her limits nearly as they were in 1789. The indemnity 
which the allies received, consisted chiefly in money, and in the 
occupancy of eighteen fortresses, by a portion of their troops, to be 
supported at the cost of France. These troops, hoAvever, were all 
withdrawn long before the term agreed on, which was five years. 

Louis XVIII., whose reign was that of a prudent, though ineffi- 
cient monarch, died in 1824, and was succeeded by his brother, the 
Count d' Artois, under the appellation of Charles X. The princi- 
pal event of the reign of Louis, was the invasion of Spain, in 1823, 



SPATN. 313 

by a French army under the Duke d' Angouleme, but without a 
.declaration of war, in consequence of the decisions of the congress 
of Verona, in 1823. This unjustifiable act resulted in the overthrow 
of the Cortes ; and the despotism of absolute royalty was immedi- 
ately re-established. 

ITALIAN STATES. 

60. In the history of Italy, during modern ages, nothing 
important occurred till the late convulsions, occasioned by the 
French revokition. The Itahan states shared deeply in them, 
as has already appeared. It may be cnly added, that the 
Congress of Vienna, in 1815, decreed the subdivision of Ita- 
ly, between the house of Austria, the king of Sardinia, the 
Pope, and the king of Naples. The free republics of Venice, 
Genoa, and Lucca, have, in consequence, been amalgamated 
with arbitrary sovereignties ; and Austria is become the pre- 
ponderating power of Italy. 

SPAIN. 

61. Phihp v., the monarch of Spain, at the commence- 
ment of this period, reigned till the year 1746. During his 
long rule, the nation degenerated as before, from the opera- 
tion of a despotic government, a superstitious and cruel reh- 
gion, aided by the natural indolence of the people. 

§ In 1717, the Spaniards took Sardinia; but the next year invaded 
Sicily, without success. 

62. Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI., 1746, 
who was a mild and pacific prince, but whose reign is barren 
of those events which usually furnish matter for history. 
The indolent and effeminate Charles III., brother of Ferdi- 
nand, succeeded him, in 1759, who reigned till the year 1788. 
The principal events of his reign were, the formation of the 
family compact, between France and Spain ; the union of 
these nations against England, in the American war; and 
their unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar. 

§ In the siege of Gibraltar, twelve thousand pieces of heavy ordi- 
nance were accumulated before the place, for the numerous intended 
attacks by sea and land ; there were, also, in proportion, gun-boats, 
bomb-vessels, battering ships, military stores, and ammunition. In- 
deed, nearly all the frigates and smaller armed vessels of the king- 
dom, were assembled to afford requisite assistance, and the combined 
fleets of France and Spain, amounting to about fifty ships of the line, 

27 



314 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

were to cover and support the attack. But all this formidable force 
was employed in vain, from the almost impregnable situation of the 
fort, and the valour of its defenders. It seemed as if so many can- 
non and other means of destruction, playing upon the rock, would 
have annihilated it — all looked like a mass of fire in and around it, 
but the loss sustained by the besieged was much less than might 
have been expected, while that of the Spanish and French was im- 
mense. The mortification which the Spaniards always have felt, ever 
since this fortress fell into the hands of the English, was greatly in- 
creased by the unsuccessful issue of this celebrated siege. 

63. Charles IV. possessed the crown upon the death of his 
father, 1788. He was an inefficient and unfortunate mo- 
narch. In 1792, he entered into a league against the French 
republic, but being defeated, he united witli France against 
Great Britain. After the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, 
Spain professed to be neutral, till the capture of several of 
her treasure ships, by a British squadron, after which, the 
weakness of the government led to an insurrection, and Fer- 
dinand VII. dethroned his father. 

The father and son, under the influence of French intrigue, 
afterwards appealed to Napoleon, to whom the father formal- 
ly surrendered his kingdom, at Bayonne, for the puipose of 
defeating the claims of his son ; who, after being also obliged 
to sign a renunciation of the throne, was then treacherously 
detained a state prisoner, at Compeigne, in France. From 
this period, the situation of Spain, appears in the account al- 
ready given concerning France. 

§ Since the restoration of the general peace, Spain has been more 
unfortunate than any other of the European communities. Abroad, 
she has lost her colonies in South America ; at home, the horrors of 
anarchy and internal war, and, at length, of despotism and the In- 
quisition, she has been doomed to bear. 

Portugal has experienced scarcely a milder fate than Spain. Its 
situation since the emigration of the royal family to Brazil, has been 
singular, and at the present time, is deplorable. A monarch residing 
in a colony, and governing the parent state, is altogether a novelty 
in the history of the world ; yet such has been the fact in regard to 
the emperor of Brazil. At this moment, the despotism of the usurp- 
er, Don Miguel, is producing consternation and distress among the 
adherents of the regular government. 

The history of Portugal, from the time of its independence under 
John, duke of Braganza, in 1664, to the time of the French revolu- 
tion, is of so little consequence, that it has been omitted altogether. 
Since the latter period, the incidental notices which have been given 
of its affairs, must suffice. It may be remarked, that the Portuguese 



THE NETHERLANDS. 315 

are still rich in colonial possessions, notwithstanding they have lost 
most of what they used to hold in Asia. 

THE NETHERLANDS. 

64. The history of the Netherlands, under the name of 
Holland, was briefly sketched in the period preceding the 
last. Holland, as including seven united provinces, and as 
constituting an independent nation, was the most important 
portion of the Low Countries. The character of its inhabi- 
tants, as an eminently enterprising and industrious people, 
also placed them at the head of these countries. In the ages 
preceding the French revolution, their commerce was exceed- 
ed by that of no nation, and wealth from this source poured 
in upon them apace. Their maritime force was consequently 
extensive, and they had numerous collisions with their great 
rivals, the British, who were destined, at last, far to surpass 
tliem in riches and naval power. 

Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century, it wag 
apparent, that the Dutch were falling from their high eleva- 
tion. Indolence, luxury, and avarice, the consequence of 
wealth, had, in a degree, affected this excellent people ; and 
their spirit, which would otherwise have been invincible, 
yielded to French intrigue and military enthusiasm, at the 
era of the revolution. 

The ten provinces, called Belgium, or Flanders, since 
they were freed from the Spanish yoke, have been usually 
divided into Austrian, French, and Dutch Netherlands. 
Prussia, also, has shared in them ; and, indeed, they have 
often changed masters. They were swallowed up eventually 
in the great political vortex, to which reference has been so 
frequently made. 

§ No space remains for an account of the stadtholders of Holland, 
since the time of Maurice, who was mentioned in the eighth period. 
Nor is their history very important, as the stadtholdership was seve- 
ral times abolished. During the separate times of its existence, it 
has been held by the princes of the house of Orange. 

65. After the United Netherlands were overrun by the 
French, in 1795, and the stadtholder and his family were 
obliged to flee to England, the whole country was oppressed 
and plundered by the French, and the melancholy spectacle 
was presented, of ruined commerce and civil discord, with aa 



516 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

incredible mass of public and individual suffering. Besides 
misery at home, there was loss abroad ; and Holland, rich in 
colonies, was stripped of most of them, by means of the re- 
volutionary wars, in which she was involved. 

In 1814, the prince of Orange was recalled, and Flanders 
being annexed to Holland, and forming one kingdom, he as- 
sumed the title of king of the Netherlands. 

§ The restoration of the state of the Netherlands, was one of the 
principal points in the restoration of the political system of Europe, 
effected by the congress at Vienna. That its fate was connected 
with the fate of the Belgic, no less than the Batavian provinces, ap- 
peared from the fact, that Belgium, in the hands of France, first 
opened the avenue to universal dominion. It was felt to be necessa- 
ry, to found there a powerful state, which, at least in alliance with 
Prussia, should be strong enough for its own defence ; and the union 
of all the Netherlands into one kingdom, was resolved on by the 
Congress. The sovereign of the house of Orange adopted the 
royal title, and gave them a free constitution. 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

66. In the history of Turkey, we perceive the evidences 
of a rapid decHne, from about the commencement of the 
present period. The people have been extremely depressed, 
and the nature of their institutions is such as to preclude, in 
a great measure, the improvements common to the rest of 
Europe. Some changes have very recently been effected. 
1'he discipline of the army has been improved, and the an- 
cient body of the Janizaries, so formidable to the government 
and its master, has been broken up by the present energetic 
Sultan. Yet the empire, as it respects European dominions, 
is now on the brink of destruction,* from the victorious ca- 
reer of the Russians. From its conflicts with that people, it 
has generally retired, shorn of some portion of its territories, 
and with diminished strength and resources. With Persia, 
also, it has often fought, but on more equal terms. 

At the commencement of thi? period, Achmet III. was the 
reigning Sultan. He was deposed in 1730, since which time, 

♦ By the late treaty of peace, which the Sultan ratified, on the 20th Septem- 
ber, 18*29, European Turkey is nominally preserved in independence ; but the 
terms of pacification were so favourable to Russia, that the latter enjoys almost 
every advantage which would accrue from the actual possession of the 
country. 



TURKISH EMPIRE. 



317 



there have been seven sultans, viz. Mahomet Y., Osman III., 
Mustapha 111., Achmet IV., Selim 111., Mustapha IV., and 
Mahmoud II., the present sultan. 

5 Under Mustapha III., Turkey and Russia engaged in a furious 
and bloody war, which lasted from 1769, to 1774. By means of a 
fleet which sailed to the Archipelago, the Russians seized a part of 
the Morea, whose inhabitants soon rose in a general revolt, and de- 
clared in favour of Russia. But the sultan sent an army to the 
Peninsula, and quelled the revolt, inflicting the severest punishment 
on many of the unhappy Greeks. This war was disastrous to the 
Turks. 

The war was renewed by Achmet IV., in 1787, and concluded not 
until 1792, under Selim III. Important concessions were made to 
Russia. Koutousoff greatly distinguished himself in this war, as 
did also Suwarrow. It was during the reign of Selim, that Bona- 
parte invaded Egypt, and the transactions took place in regard to 
that country, which have been related in the history of France. 
Achmet, and also his successor, Mustapha IV., were deposed and 
murdered by the Janizaries. 

The Porte had kept itself remote from the convulsions connected 
with the French revolution, \7ith the exception of the war with Rus- 
sia, from 1809 to 1812, which cost it Bessarabia, and a part of Mol- 
davia. Assisted by the powerful Bashaw of Egypt, the Porte was 
more active in Arabia, against the Vv'echabites, than in Europe, the 
tranquillity of which it is not for its interest to disturb, if it be itself 
left in quiet. This, however, has not been sutfered to be the case, 
since the year 1821. Since that time, it has had an almost inces- 
sant struggle with the Greeks, and lately it has been involved in a 
ruinous war with Russia. 

The inhabitants of Greece, oppressed beyond endurance by the 
barbarous Turk, and recalling to remembrance their ancient freedom, 
and their ancient renown, have asserted their rights by arms. An 
insurrection broke out simuhaneously, in almost every section of the 
territory, and has been pursued on both sides, on the mainland, and 
on the sea, with a furious rancour. After eight years of unprecedent- 
ed suffering, Greece has become effectively free, by its own heroism, 
and the interference of Russia, France and England. 

The insurrection, which has thus terminated in securing the liber- 
ties of Greece, broke out in the month of April, 1821, in Moldavia, 
and almost at the same time, in the Morea, as well as on most of the 
islands of the Archipelago. Of these islands, the naval force was 
generally superior to the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821, 
the Turks were driven from the Morea and the islands, with the ex- 
ception of the garrisons of several strong fortresses. But these por- 
tions of Greece, have since been repeatedly harrassed by the vindic- 
tive Turks, till lately, their contest with Russia, for their own exis- 
Lence, has absorbed every other interest. 

27* 



318 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD 



CHINA. 



67. At the commencement of this period, Yong-Tching, 
of the twenty -second dynasty, occupied the throne of China. 
Two emperors of this dynasty, which is that of the Tartars, 
had preceded him, viz. Chun-tsi, and Kang-hi. A revolution 
in China, which commenced in 1641, brought the Tartars a 
second time into power ; but they were not considered as set- 
tled, till 1649, which is properly the date of the twenty- 
second, or the present dynasty. The successors of Yong- 
Tching, have been Kien-Long, and Kia-Khing. The name 
of the present emperor is not known to the author of this 
work. 

§ In the reign of Yong-Tching, the Jesuits, who first penetra- 
ted into the empire, in 1683, were banished, and the christians were 
persecuted, not excepting those of the imperial family. In the reign 
of the same prince, also, an earthquake took place, at Pekin and its 
environs, such as had never before been felt in China. The first 
shocks were so sudden and violent, that in less than a minute, above 
100,000 inhabitants were buried in the ruins of houses, ana a still 
greater number in the surrounding country, where whole villages 
and towns were destroyed. 

Kien-Long died in 1795, in the ninetieth year of his age, and in 
the sixty-second year of his reign, it is said to have been a 
peaceful and happy, as well as long reign. In 1793, the celebrated 
British embassy, under Lord Macartney, arrived in China, with a 
view to the establishment of a connuercial intercourse between the 
two countries. An account of this embassy, has been written by 
Sir George Staunton. In the estimation of Europe, Kien-Long stood 
at the head of the sovereigns of half civilized nations. 

Kia-Khing died in 1819, at the time when the famous Russian 
mission, under Timkowski, was approaching the celestial empire. 
He was the seventeenth son of Kien-Long, and reigned happily. 
The Russian mission, took notice that the buttons, which are so con- 
spicuous in the Chinese official costume, disappeared from all the 
caps of the loyal Chinese and Mongul officers, and that they, as 
well as their countrymen, adopted a white dress. This, among them, 
is the mourning colour, for as good a reason, doubtless, as black 
among the Europeans, blue among the Persians, and violet among 
the Turks. 

PERSIA. 

68. Soon after the beginning of the present period, Persia, 
which was governed for a time by the posterity of Tamer- 
lancj and afterwards by the Sophis, had the famous Kouli 



PERSIA. 319 

Khan, or Nadir Shah, for its sovereign. He had been the 
general of Abbas III., his predecessor, whom it is supposed 
he poisoned, and thus supplanted the Sophia family. In 
1739, he invaded India, and conquered the Mogul empire, 
taking Delhi, acquiring immense wealth, and committing the 
most horrible massacres. This monster then took the title 
of Emperor of the Indies, and returning into Persia, attempt- 
ed to change the religion, and strangled all the priests, after 
which, in self defence, he was murdered in his tent, by his 
own officer. 

After his death, Persia was desolated by civil wars, be- 
tween various rivals for the throne ; but the countiy, after 
being exhausted by these events, settled itself under Kerim 
Khan, an able prince, of obscure birth, who died in 1779. 
On his death, Persia again fell into confusion, till the last of 
his family was overthrown, and the sovereignty regained by 
Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1794. He delegated the govern- 
ment to his sons. 

§ The origin of the Sophis, is connected with a revolution on ac- 
count of religion, in the end of the fifteenth century. Hadar, or 
Sophi, a religious enthusiast, restored or established the sect of Ali 
in Persia, whom he considered to be the successor of Mahomet, rather 
than Omar. The Persians liking a doctrine that distinguished them 
from their enemies, the Turks, and being at the same time exempted 
from the obligation of performing pilgrimages to Mecca, embraced 
it in great numbers; and Ishraael, the son of Sophi, following the 
example of Mahomet, enforced his opinions by the sword. All Per- 
sia and Armenia submitted to his arms. His descendants ruled till 
the time of Kouli Khan. 

Persia has been often conquered, yet the form of its government, 
and the state of society, have continued nearly the same through 
almost two thousand years. In a late war with Russia, it has lost 
considerable territory. 

INDIA. 

69. The vast and populous country under the name of 
India, makes but an inconsiderable figure in history. Doubt- 
less, many subjects of an interesting nature might be found, 
could the modern historian have afair opportunity of research ; 
but few have, as yet, appeared, and these in so detached a 
manner, that a regular account cannot easily be given of the 
events in Indian history. The mention of tliis country, sepa- 
rately from others, has accordingly been omitted till the pre- 



320 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

sent period. Indeed, it has little claim on our attention, in an 
outline of general history, till very modern times. The few 
details that can be afforded, both of its earlier and later histo- 
ry, will appear below. Like most other Asiatic countries, it 
has been often and easily conquered, but without materially 
affecting the form of its government, or its manners and cus- 
toms. Successive dynasties have ruled over most of the ori- 
ental nations, but they have left the latter where they found 
them. So far back as authentic records carry us, we find 
among the people, little or no advances made in civihzation, 
refinement, or knowledge. They are the same in indolence, 
effeminacy, and luxury, that they were two thousand years 
ago ; not ignorant, yet Avithout a spirit of enterprise ; accom- 
plished in certain arts, yet incapable of learning others. 

§ India was but little known to the ancients. Alexander the Great, 
first invaded, though he did not conquer it, except in part. The 
country was afterwards visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell 
in the partition of Alexander's empire; and Antiochus the Great, 
two hundred years subsequently, made a short expedition thither. 

The Arabians penetrated into Hindoostan, about 710, and founded 
an empire extending to the Ganges, which, in 1155, was usurped by 
the Persians. After this, followed the march of Genghis Khan, 
who is said to have given the name of Mogul, to India ; and subse- 
quently, the conquering career of Tamerlane, both of which have 
been elsewhere mentioned. The descendants of Tamerlane enjoy- 
ed no more than the northern parts, till after 1498, when sultan Ba- 
ber subdued almost all the country, except the Deccan, Grezerat, 
and Bengal. 

Aureng Zeeb, who reigned between 1660 and 1707, conquered 
Bengal, and the greater part of the Deccan. At his death, he left 
an empire of great extent, and producing a revenue of more than 
£35,000,000 sterling. But a succession of weak princes and wicked 
ninisters reduced this vast empire, in the course of fifty years, to in- 
significance. In 1739, Hindoostan was invaded by Kouli-Khan, who 
annihilated the Mogul empire. It was, however, afterwards reviv- 
ed, for a time, but soon fell into decay, and can now be scarcely said 
to exist. 

The British are now the principal possessors of India. Their do- 
minions in India have been created, first, by the establishment of 
factories for trade ; 2d, by wars made upon the natives by the resi- 
dents of those factories ; and lastly, by the capture of the Portuguese, 
Dutch, and French colonies in India. 

The British Indian dominions, which were extensive before, and 
which began as early as 1757, have been greatly increased within 
tlie last thirty or thirty-five years. A statement, somewhat recent, 
makes the number of square miles of territory, under British juris- 
diction or influence, 776,000, and the population not less than eighty- 

V 



UNITED STATES. 321 

six millions. To the above it must be added, that their Indian do- 
minions have been lately increased by a portion of the Burman em- 
pire, in consequence of a vi^ar with the latter. 

The government of this immense country, is vested in a Governor 
General, and a council of four, appointed by the British crown, who 
reside at Calcutta. 



THE UNITED STATES. % 

70. The United States, which, at the beginning of this 
period, were in a colonial condition, assumed, before the con- 
clusion of it, their separate and equal station among the na- 
tions of the earth. It was with them an era of great events, 
and the change from colonies to a state of independence, though 
it lay in the natural course of things, was equally unexpected 
and instructive to the world. 

The colonies enjoyed a degree of tranquillity, from the peace 
of Utrecht, to the year 1744. In that year, a war breaking 
out between Great Britain and France, America was involved 
in it, the result of which was the capture of Louisburg, on the 
island of Cape Breton, a place of great strength. This con- 
quest was effected principally by the troops of Massachusetts^ 
The place, however, was restored to France, by the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. 

In 1746, a powerful French armament was sent against 
America, but by means of shipwrecks, sickness, and other 
disasters, it providentially failed of its object. For several 
years, poweiful efforts were made on the part of the Ameri- 
cans and British, against the places and forts occupied by the 
French, particularly Louisburg, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, 
Fort du Gluesne, (Pittsburg,) and Niagara. Success eventu- 
ally attended the Americans and British, and by the peace of 
Paris, in 1763, all the Canadas, together with Nova Scotia, 
and the island of Cape Breton, were confirmed to Great Bri- 
tain. George Washington, the future deliverer of America, 
first came into public notice during these contests. 

§ In America, the long cherished democratic principles, realized 
by the constitutions of most of the provinces, a consequent weaker 
political connection with the mother country, and the feeling of 
growing strength, already tried in the seven years' war, were among 
the causes of the struggle after mdependence. Nothing was want- 
ing then but an occasion for a breach, and that could not long be 
wanting. 



322 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

71. The origin of the dispute was not so much in any- 
sensible oppression, as in a question of right. Had the Bri- 
tish parhament a right to tax the colonies ? Parhament main- 
tained the affirmative ; the colonies denied it, on the ground, 
that they were not represented. Representation and taxation, 
accoiding to their views, were inseparable. If their property- 
could be taken without their consent, they had no safety. 

§ The dispute arose as early as 1764, occasioned by the stamp act, 
passed March 22d, 1765. The immediate consequence, was a great 
commotion in all the colonies, especially in Massachusetts and Vir- 
ginia, and a congress was convened at New- York, in October, which 
published a declaration of the people's rights. The stamp act was 
repealed March 19th, 1766; but the principle was at the same time 
confirmed, by the bill, declaring the supremacy of the parliament in 
all cases whatever. 

In agreement with the British doctrine, the ministry soon after 
attempted to effect its object by means of indirect duties. These 
were laid on tea, paper, glass, and colours, by the revenue act, June, 
1767. The proceeds of these duties were to form a civil list for 
America, which should be wholly at the disposition of the ministers, 
for conferring remunerations, pensions, &c. The opposition to this 
form of taxation, and to every form, being renewed, especially in 
Boston, which was the centre of resistance. Lord North abro- 
gated these duties, except the one on tea, in 1770. By this reser- 
vation, the right of taxation was explicitly asserted ; but as the 
Americans, by voluntary agreement, would make use of no British 
commodities, the tea which was brought to this country could 
not be sold. The East India Company consequently became em- 
barrassed ; and after the repeal of the export tax in England, at- 
tempted to gain the Americans by a cheaper price. But, neverthe- 
theless, measures were adopted to prevent the importation of tea, 
and a cargo of it was forcibly seized, and thrown into the harbour, 
in Boston, December 26th, 1773. 

72. The measures adopted by the Americans, impelled En- 
gland to resort to severer acts. These consisted not only in 
shutting the harbour of Boston, but in regulations by which 
the charter of Massachusetts was annihilated. It was these 
regulations which created the general insurrection, since each 
colony now saw no security for its former constitution. The 
Boston port bill was passed March 25th, 1774. The town 
was soon occupied by the British troops. 

§ Great harmony prevailed among the provinces, and a Congress 
was opened at Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774, which resolved to sus- 
pend all commercial intercourse with England, expressing at the 
same time all dutifulness to the crown. England was thus brought 
io the alternative of making concessions, or a civil war. It chose the 



UNITED STATES. 323 

latter, and notwithstanding the eloquence even of Chatham and 
Burke, parliament proclaimed the provincials, rebels. Hostilities 
began by the battle of Lexington, 19th April, 1775. New troops ar- 
rived from England in May. It was hoped that a few regiments 
would be sufficient to put down opposition — so profoundly ignorant 
was the British ministry of the spirit which had been aroused in 
America ! 

The war, which rapidly commenced on the part of the colonies, 
by the fruitless expedition led by Arnold and Montgomery against 
Canada, in October, 1775, necessarily became, from its nature, a defen- 
sive war ; and who but the modern Fabius was capable of waging it ! 
" The greatness of Washington was not founded on splendid talents, 
but on laborious years ; not on quick success, but on enduring per- 
severance." 

73. It was not long before the idea of an entire separation 
from England, suggested by the vindictive measures which 
that country had employed, found every where a hearty re- 
ception in America. In that event only, was aid to be hoped 
for in Europe. Accordingly, the thirteen United States were 
declared independent, 4th July, 1776. After this decisive 
step, but one happy blow was wanting to give the colonies 
alhes in Europe. This was done by the capture of Bur- 
goyne and his troops, on the 16th October, 1777. This joyful 
event had been preceded by a period of gloom and disaster 
in the middle states, while Washington, with the shadow of 
an army, enfeebled, dispirited, and destitute almost of cloth- 
ing and necessaries, was closely pursued by a powerful Bri- 
tish force through the Jerseys — while the enemy had come 
in possession of the city of New-York, Long Island, Staten 
Island, and Rhode Island — and while the inauspicious opera- 
tions at Brandywine and Germantown, filled every American 
with terror. This sad picture, however, was relieved by the 
firmness of congress, by the uniform cautious valour and 
steady perseverance of the commander-in-chief, — and by his 
successes at Trenton and Princeton. 

§ Upon the capture of Burgoyne, the FrencJi court acknowledged 
the independence of the United States, and declared war against 
England. France had Spain and Holland for its allies, and the war 
on their part became at first a contest for the dominion of the ocearu 
On this element the French contended with more glory tlian usuaL 
But the fate of America, as the event has proved, was to be decided 
on the continent. 

74. The countenance and aid which France offered to 
the cause of liberty, filled America with rejoicing : but Wash- 



324 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

ington, however much assisted by the French auxiliaries 
under Rochambeau and La Fayette's generous enthusiasm, 
hats the glory of having struck the decisive blow. He sur- 
rounded Cornwallis at Yorktown, who was forced to capitu- 
late, Oct. 19th, 1781 . After his capture, England could en- 
tertain no more hope of reducing America, and it required 
only a change of ministers to produce a peace, which was 
accordingly done. The independence of the United States 
was acknowledged by Great Britain, and prehminaries of peace 
were signed, 30th November, 1782, which were changed into a 
definitive peace, 3d September, 1783. The country adopt- 
ed its present constitution of government in 1789, which has 
been the source of unexampled prosperity. 

§ The new republic at first languished under its liberty. The first 
constitution, which was formed during the war, created a federal 
government, without strength and without credit. But the constitu- 
tion of 1789, gave it a very desirable degree of solidity, and based 
the public credit on a system of finances for the union. Under this 
constitution, Washington was chosen the first president, in which 
character he was no less essential to the welfare of the country. 
than in that of a general. " The Union can, perhaps, be preserved 
only by having great men in the first offices." This is the judge- 
ment of the liberal and learned Heeren. 

75. Commerce felt the first great influence of the new re- 
public, and almost all the maritime nations hastened to form 
treaties with it. The consequence was, that wealth and pros- 
perity poured in upon us apace. Seldom can a nation so 
increase, because it is seldom so favoured by circumstances. 
America, preserving its neutrality during most of the European 
maritime war, had such a vast carrying trade, especially be- 
tween the West Indies and Europe, that its commercial 
navigation was hardly surpassed by that of the British. 

But it was perhaps impossible for the United States always 
to continue on terms of amity with the belligerent powers. 
Disputes arose both with France and England, especially 
with the latter, who saw in America a formidable rival 
These disputes finally impelled the States to have recourse 
to the unexampled resolution of a voluntary suspension of 
their own commerce. This measure failing, a war ensued 
with England, which was declared, 18th June, 1812. In 
this contest, the young American navy gained a glorioua 
distinction, the army did less ; the capital itself became the 



SOUTH AMERICA. 325 

Spoils of the English, but New-Orleans was defended with 
courage and success. The negociations at Ghent led, in a 
happy hour, to a much needed peace, 14th December, 1814. 

After Washington, 1789, John Adams was chosen presi- 
dent, 1797, his successor was Thomas Jefferson, 1801, James 
Madison succeeded him, 1809, James Monroe followed, 1817, 
then John Q.. Adams, 1825, (son of John Adams,) and the 
present incumbent of the high office is Andrew Jack- 
son, 1829. 

§ Amidst unexampled prosperity, party spirit has raged at times, 
not without danger to the republic : but love of country has in the 
end prevailed. The war with England failed of its immediate ob- 
jects, but it shewed us our strength and our weakness, perhaps tend- 
ed to consolidate our union. It caused us to feel the necessity of a 
navy, and connected with the previous prohibitions of commerce, 
gave an impulse to our manufacturing industry. With the return 
of peace, our trade was diffused over every sea. By the purchase 
of Louisiana, the extent of our country from east to west, is the 
breadth of a continent. " Meanwhile internal improvement advan- 
ces; and the times are coming, when a man may travel with the mail 
from one ocean to the other." 

SOUTH AMERICA, 

76, The provinces of South America, which were colo- 
nized by Europeans, continued, with little variations in their 
circumstances, from the time of their settlement, to the con- 
vulsions attending the French revolution. Those convul- 
sions, inasmuch as they affected the parent countries, also 
reached them. Within the present century they have be- 
come independent sovereign states, generally with republican 
governments, resembling that of North America. Brazil, 
belonging to the Portuguese, having ceased to be a colony, is 
«tyled by its ruler, an empire. The Spanish provinces had 
a long straggle for liberty and independence, which they 
have attained, so far as concerns the interference of the mo- 
ther country. If our information be correct, all of them 
have not yet agreed on permanent forms of government. 
Seven states are already enumerated among the free govern- 
ments of the South, viz., 1. Colombia ; 2. La Plata ; 3. 
Chili : 4. Mexico ; 5. Peru ; 6. The capitania of Guatimala ; 
7. Bolivia, formed out of the provinces of Upper Peru. 

§ The struggle for freedom in the Spanish provinces, did not origi- 
28 



326 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

nate in the intention of an entire separation from the Spanish throne, 
but from resistance to the usurpation of Napoleon and his brother. 
The insurgents were, therefore, no more rebels, than the Spaniards 
themselves. But they were as unwilling to be ruled by Spanish 
Juntas, as by their viceroys, in whom they could not confide. Like 
the Spanish, they established Juntas of their own, during the im- 
prisonment of their lawful king. Meanwhile, after the erection of 
the regency in the mother country, and after its refusal to comply 
with their just demands, they would not recognize its authority, nor 
that of the Cortez assembled by it ; upon this they were declared 
rebels. After the accession of Ferdinand VII., they had gone too 
far to retreat. His violence and insincerity finished the rest. 

Distinguished Characters in Period X. 

1. Addison, an elegant Englisli essayist and poet. 

2. Newton, a most profound mathematician and philosopher. 

3. Boerhaave, a skilful and learned Dutch physician. 

4. Pope, an eminent English poet. 

5. Swift, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer. 

6. Montesquieu, a Frenchman, a great political philosopher. 

7. Edwards, an illustrious American metaphysician and 
divine. 

8. Hume, a Scotchman, an able historian, and an acute 
and skeptical wiiter. 

9. Voltaire, a French poet and writer of great celebrity. 

10. Linna?us, a Swede, the father of botany. 

11. Rousseau, a renowned Swiss philosopher, and fine writer. 

12. Pitt, a distinguished statesman and orator. 

13. Metastasio, the most illustiious poet of modern Italy. 

14. Euler, a renowned Swiss mathematician. 

15. Johnson, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essayist. 

16. Frankhn, an American, a distinguished philosopher, 
and discoverer of electricity. 

17. Gibbon, an eminent English historian. 

18. Burns, a Scotch poet, a great untaught genius. 

19. Burke, an Irishman, distinguished for eloquence and 
political knowledge. 

20. Washington, an eminent statesman and Wcirrior, and 
father of the American republic. 

21. Cowper, a celebrated English poet. 

22. Klopstock, a German poet of great repute. 

23. Heyne, an eminent German critic and scholar. 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 327 

24. M. de Stael, a learned and accomplished French female 
writer. 

25. D wight, a celebrated American divine and belles-lettres 
scholar, 

26. Buonaparte, a renowned warrior, conqueror, and states- 
man. 

1. Addison, (Joseph,) "so great in prose, so little in poetry,"* was 
the son of a clergyman, and born in 1672. He was educated at Ox- 
ford, where he so cultivated and improved his mind, by the compo- 
sition of Latin verses, that he acquired an uncommon correctness 
of style, and elegance of diction. His merits, as a writer, procured 
for him. public employment, and he even became, in 1717, secretary 
of state ; a place, however, to which he was unequal, as he possessed 
neither boldness nor eloquence. He was unable to defend the 
measures of government in the House of Commons, and only wasted 
av/ay his time in his office, in quest of fine expressions. 

Late in life, he married the countess dowager of Warwick and 
Holland ; but if this event added to his elevation, it diminished his 
happiness, for she ever remembered her rank, and treated him with 
very little ceremony; an emphatic warning against ambitious lova 
He died at the age of fifty-seven. 

The Spectator, of which the most admired pieces came from the 
pen of Addison, has immortalized his name. In that work, and in 
most of his other prose productions, he is remarkable for a delicate 
and gentle humour, and an entertaining seriousness. His style is 
admirable, for purity and ease ; and the idiomatic excehence of the 
English language, is seen in his pages, to the greatest advantage. 
Some have thought well of his poetry ; and his tragedy of Cato, ac- 
cording to the French notions, would be pronounced one of the best 
ill the English drama. But others have a very different opinion of 
Addison's poetry, and at the present day, it certainly does not stand 
very high in public esteem. 

2. Newton, (Sir Isaac,) the most iilastrious philosopher and ma- 
thematician that ever lived, was born in 1642, and died in 1727. \ 
The place of his nativity, was Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire. Particu- 
lar care was bestowed on his education by his mother, for he early 
lost his father. At the age of eighteen, he entered Trinity College, 
Cambridge, and there he began to show the astonishing strength of 
his mind in the mathematics. At the age of twenty-two, he discov- 
ered the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. 
His next pursuit was the grinding of optical glasses, for the improve- 
ment of telescopes, and soon after, connected with his investigation 
of the prism, followed his new theory of light and colours. His great- 
est discovery, and the greatest that the world ever saw, viz., the prin- 
ciple of gravitation, next succeeded. His immortal work, the Prin- 
cipia, was published in 1687. The friendship of the earl of Halifax, 

♦ Edin. Review. 



328 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. 

now procured for him a very lucrative employment, in being made 
master of the mint. His reputation extended with every effort of 
his genius, and he enjoyed numerous honours, and the favour of 
princes. 

He began to be affected with disease, about the age of eighty. Ah 
incontinence of urine, and the excruciating pains of a stone in the 
bladder, were the melancholy presages of approaching dissolution. 
He, however, lived about five years from this time. For a few weeks 
before his death, the agonies which he suffered were very great yet 
he bore them with exemplary patience, and though, from the severe 
paroxysms which he endured, large drops of sweat ran down his 
cheeks, he preserved his usual smile of cheerfulness and serenity. 

The character of Newton, is represented as being amiable, and 
adorned with the virtues of a christian. Irreverence towards the 
Deity, or the holy scriptures, always drew from him the severest 
censure. The bible he made his favourite study. His person was 
of a middle stature, and his countenance, though venerable and 
pleasant, did not indicate that transcendant sagacity, which he is 
known to have possessed. 

It is superfluous to comment on his intellectual superiority. A 
celebrated writer has observed, that if the literati of all ages and na- 
tions could meet in one assembly, they would choose Sir Isaac New- 
ton for their president. In his researches, he proceeded on the 
method laid down by Bacon, but with a clearness and strength of 
comprehension in abstruse studies, even exceeding the father of ex- 
perimental philosophy. 

3. Boerhaave, (Herman,) was bom near Leyden, in 1668. He 
was intended for the ministry by his father, but the circumstance, 
that in his twelfth year only, he cured a distressing complaint with 
which he was afflicted, and which baffled all the powers of his sur- 
geon, turned his thoughts to the medical profession. Still, however, 
he studied theology in connection with it. He stood at the head of 
his profession, and as a lecturer on physic and botany, he became 
renowned, not only in his own country, but throughout Europe, so 
that students resorted to him from all quarters. His powers of mind 
were vast, and his learning extended to almost every subject of hu- 
man investigation. He was a great and good man. His valuable 
works are in Latin, and all on medical, botanical, and chemical sub- 
jects. His death occurred in 1738. 

4. Pope, (Alexander,) Avho died in 1774, aged fifty-six years, was 
a native of London. After having been at school a few years, he 
went, at the age of twelve, to live with his parents at Binfield, in 
Windsor forest, and first discovered, or rather improved his taste for 
poetry, by reading the translated w^orks of Virgil and Ovid ; but es- 
pecially the poems of Spenser, Waller and Dryden. He early be- 
gan to try his strength in poetry, and so early, that to use his own 
expression, he " lisped in numbers." His first regular composition 
seems, however, to have been his Ode on Solitude, written when he 
was about twelve years old. Four years after this, when he began 
his pastorals, his merit introduced him into the society of the wits of the 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 329 

age ; and he became the wonder of the hterary world, when, at less 
than the age of twenty, he pubhshed his Essay on Criticism. I'his is, 
perhaps, as faultless a piece of composition, as the history of youth- 
ful genius has ever recorded. It evinces all the mature reflection, 
and developed capacities of age. But the fame of the Essay was 
soon surpassed b)^ the Rape of the Lock, which he produced at the 
age of twenty-four. The Temple of Fame, next engaged the pub- 
he attention. His next great effort, was the translation of Homer's 
Iliad, from which he realized a fortune, receiving £6000, from his 
subscribers, and £12,000, from his bookseller. After this, he wrote 
several other works, particularly the Dunciad, a work of the keen- 
est satire, and the Essay on Man, which, though beautiful in language, 
and elaborate in disquisition, shews the writer to have been skeptical, 
as to religion. 

Pope was bred a Roman catholic, but, in the latter part of his hfe, 
he attended the service of the English church. In his person, he 
was diminutive, and somewhat crooked — when tauntingly reminded 
of it, he would say, " God mend me." In disposition, he was fretful 
and easily displeased, and, to his no small reproach, it must be said, 
tliat he was capricious in his friendships. His manners were easy, 
and his wit fascinating. Many of the great and noble were his ad- 
mirers, but he made them feel, that he did not servilely adore supe- 
riority of rank. 

Puny and delicate as the constitution of this poet was, his life was 
prolonged to his fifty-sixth year, by means of peculiar care and tem- 
perance. 

5. Swift, (Jonathan,) was born in Ireland, in 1667. He was de- 
scended, however, from an ancient English family. In early life, he 
was poor, but his relatives furnished him with the means of pro- 
curing his education. So indifferent a scholar was he at the univer- 
sity, that he obtained his first degree only by special favour. This 
mortification of his feelings, had a most propitious effect on his lite- 
rary progress, for it stimulated him to a methodical and diligent ap- 
plication to his books, during several succeeding years. Swift, un- 
der the auspices of Sir William Temple, with whom he had formed 
an intimacy, might have risen in civil or military life, as the king, 
in one instance, offered to make him captain of horse; but his 
thoughts were directed to the church. A little after the year 1694, 
he took orders, and engaged in the duties of a parish priest. His 
hopes of preferment were, from time to time, disappointed. He had 
expected some fat benefice in the English church, and even looked 
to a bishoprick ; but he attained only the deanery of St. Patrick, Dub- 
lin. After the accession of queen Anne, he became deeply engaged 
in political controversy, and wrote some able pohtical works. He 
died in a state of alienation and weakness, in 1745. 

The works of Swift are numerous, and highly respectable for the 
ability they display. He wrote in a pure and plain style, and had, 
as Johnson says, " an equable tenor of easy language, which rather 
trickles than flows." The effects of his writings were very decisive, 
at the time, and some of them are still read with great pleasure. His 

28* 



330 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

Gulliver's Travels, and his Tale of a Tub, have lost nothing of their 
popularity. 

Swift was an eccentric being, and little better than a madman. 
He delighted to differ from all oth'^r men, on those subjects, or in re- 
gard to those interests, in which all other men are agreed. Though 
married, he was never known to be in company with his wife, ex- 
cept in the presence of a third person. He was strongly attached to 
her, and yet his strange cruelty broke her heart. Like some men, 
however, he was avaricious. " He made a rule to himself, to give 
but one piece at a time, and therefore always stored his pocket with 
coins of different value." But what he did give, was graced neither 
with tenderness nor civility. "When his friends, of either sex, 
came to him, in expectation of a dinner, his custom Avas to give 
every one a shilling, that they might please themselves with pro- 
vision. At last, his avarice grew too powerful for his kindness ; he 
would refuse a bottle of wine ; and, in Ireland, no man visits where 
he cannot drink." Whether he really believed in the truth of Chris- 
tianity, is, to say the least, doubtful. His professed dread of hypo- 
crisy, might rather be termed the fear of man, or indifference to re- 
ligion, when it induced him to read prayers to his servant, every 
morning, with such dexterous secresy, that Dr. Delany was six 
months in his house before he knew it. 

6. Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat) was born at Brede, near 
Bordeaux, 1689, of a noble family. He devoted himself early to 
literature, and first displayed strong powers of mind in his Per- 
sian Letters. His great work, that which has conferred on him an 
immortal name, is, his Spirit of Laws. In this production, he dis- 
plays astonishing depth of thought, vigour of imagination, and so- 
lidity of judgment, and deserves the honourable appellation of the 
Legislator of the Human Race. While he was engaged in that 
work, he visited several countries for information, as Germany, 
Hungary, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England. In the last he 
resided two years, where he was greatly honoured. It was an ob- 
servation of his, " that England was the country where to think, and 
France where to live." 

7. Edwards, (Jonathan,) so advantageously known at home and 
abroad, for the power of his intellect, and the usefulness of his wri- 
tings, was a native of Windsor, Connecticut. He was born in 1703, 
graduated at Yale College, in 1720, where he spent two years, as a 
tutor; settled in the ministry at Northampton, 1727, whence he was 
removed ; appointed missionary to the Indians, at Stockbridge, in 
1751 ; and called to the presidency of Nassau Hall, in 1758. He had 
scarcely entered on the duties of that station, when he fell a victim 
to the small pox, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. 

President Edwards was one of the greatest and best men of mo- 
dern times. He possessed an acute metaphysical turn of mind, 
which he most usefully employed in the investigation of divine 
truth. His treatise on the Will, is deservedly ranked as one of the 
ablest productions of the human mind. This work did that for the 
moral nature of man, which Locke's Essay on the Understandmg 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 331 

(did for man's intellectual nature. It settled several controverted 
subjects, which had perplexed the divines and philosophers, who 
went before him. Edwards, as a metaphysician, stands by the side 
of Locke, Bacon, and Aristotle ; while, as a christian, he was pre- 
eminent in conscientiousness, humility, fear of God, and faithfulness 
to the spiritual interests of men. There is an awful power in his 
sermons. His Treatise on the Affections, is an invaluable book, 
which no christian, probably, ever read without profit. 

8. Hume (David) was designed, by his family, for the law, but 
the turn of his mind led him to literary pursuits. For this purpose, 
he retired to France, and, though he possessed slender means, he 
was able, by the most rigid economy, to pursue his studies in that 
country. Here he wrote his treatise of Human Nature. In 1742, 
the first part of his Essays appeared. His Political Discourses, and 
his Inquiries concerning the Principles of Morals, followed, in 1752. 
At diflferent periods afterwards, the several portions of his English 
History were given to the public. These works were little noticed 
at first, unless his History be excepted, but some of them gradually 
grew into reputation, and he realized, from the latter works particu- 
larly, a handsome reward. This, together with the avails of other 
employments, made him, in his own view, very opulent, as he pos- 
sessed a revenue of £1000 a year. He was born at Edinburgh, 171 1, 
and died at the same place, 1776. 

Hume, doubtless, is an able writer, ingenious, subtile, and acute; 
but the sophistry of his arguments, on the subject of morals and re- 
ligion, is unwortliy of a man of his penetration. He knew better 
than to use the fallacious language with which he has often clothed 
his thoughts, and by means of which he has confounded truth with 
error, and right with wrong. 

9. Voltaire (Marie Francis Arouet de) was a Parisian by birth. 
He died in 1778, at the age of eighty-four. For a long period, he 
was a sort of dictator in the republic of letters on the continent. 
By his free remarks on government and religion, he contributed, 
perhaps more than any other man, to lay the foundation of that 
state of things which afterwards existed in France, known under the 
name of the Revolution. 

In early life, he evinced superior powers of mind, and especially 
a sprightly imagination. He wrote verses, he says, before he left 
his cradle. His fondness for sp.tire, directed against the government, 
procured his imprisonment in the bastile, till he was liberated by 
the interference of the duke of Orleans. After this event, he devoted 
himself more entirely to the composition of poetry. His principal 
efforts were directed towards the drama ; and his Alzire, Mahomet, 
and Merope, placed him at the head of the dramatic poets of France. 
His Henriade, an epic poem, he had previously published in Eng- 
land. Encouraged by the Prussian monarch, he spent some time at 
the court of Berlin ; but he at last fixed his residence in a village on 
the borders of France, named Ferney. The boldness and effrontery 
of his muse, had r(mdered a residence in the French capital vexa- 
tious, and even dangerous to him, and hence he willingly left his 



332 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

country at different times, and at last retired to a remote corner 
of it, so that he might pursue his studies in quiet. Here he con- 
tinued long to direct the taste and literature of the age. He died at 
Paris, while visiting that city ; and according to some accounts, he 
departed in great horror, from reflections on the irreligious tenden- 
cy of his writings. The blasphemous atheist often, indeed, ap- 
peared in his works. 

The following particulars respecting Voltaire, are given from a 
contemporaneous account. Many others might be added. "The 
most piercing eyes I ever beheld," says Dr. Moore, " are those of 
Voltaire, now in his eightieth year. His whole countenance is ex- 
pressive of genius, observation, and extreme sensibility. In the 
morning, he has a look of anxiety and discontent, which gradually 
wears off, and after dinner, he seems cheerful ; yet, an air of irony 
never entirely forsakes his face, but may always be observed lurking 
in his features, whether he frowns or smiles. By far the greater part 
of his time is spent in his study, and whether he reads himself, or 
listens to another, he always has a pen in his hands to take notes, or 
make remarks." 

10. Linnaeus (Charles Von) was the son of a Swedish clergyman, 
born in the province of Smaland, 1707. He practised physic with 
such popularity and success, that at the age of thirty-four, he was 
nominated professor of physic and botany in the university of Up- 
sal, where he had been educated. His sovereign duly noticed his 
services, and besides other favours, conferred on him the honour 
of nobility. With an unparalleled ardour after knowledge, Linnceus 
undertook to explore the inhospitable deserts of Lapland, and through 
ten degrees of latitude, he exposed himself, generally on foot, lo every 
sort of fatigue. He afterwards visited other countries. He died iia 
1778, having been seized with an apoplexy two years before. 

To his sagacity and discernment, science is indebted for the useful 
and familiar division of plants, of animals, &c. into classes. To the 
most extensive knowledge, he united the most indefatigable industry, 
and before liis publication of his Genera Plantarum, he most minute- 
ly examined the characters of more than eight hundred plants. • 

11. Rousseau (John James) was born in Geneva, in 1712. He 
was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active, 
and the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus expanded his ideas, 
and inspired him with courage. His life was somewhat eventful, 
though we cannot dwell on the particulars. The strangeness and 
inconstancy of his character, subjected him to no inconsiderable ca- 
lamities; and, while by nature he was formed to enjoy the pleasures 
of the world in perfection, he endured self-inflicted tortures to such 
an extent, as to leave the balance of pleasure very little, if at all, ia 
his favour. He had a perpetual hankering after some unattainable 
state of voluptuous virtue. Though equally skeptical with Hume 
and Voltaire, he quarrelled with the one, who was his protector in 
England, and he incurred the persecution of the other, for maintain- 
ing the immoral tendency of the stage. (Strange to tell, he had 
written for the stage himself j but he was a creature of inconsistency.) 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 333 

Some of his opinions were so obnoxious, that the popular indigna- 
tion was aroused against him, and he was obhged to flee from place 
to place on the continent, and, in fact, he found no asylum till he 
reached England. At length, however, he returned to Geneva, and 
spent the last years of his life in the company of a few friends, and 
resigned himself to peaceful studies. He died of an apoplexy, in 
1778, aged sixty-six years. 

His works show him to have been a man of transcendent genius, 
but convict him of the utmost eccentricity, joined with licentious- 
ness and skepticism. He may be called the Diogenes of modern 
times. His literary career commenced at the age of thirty-eight, 
by a prize essay, in which he maintained the superiority of savage 
nature to the comforts of domestic and social life. This opinion he 
defended, for a long time, against all Europe. His New Heloise, and 
his Emilius, moral romances, attained to a great celebrity. His Con- 
fessions, a work published after his death, is one of the most singu- 
lar productions of the human mind. 

12. Pitt (William) was earl of Chatham, and is commonly known 
oy that name. He was born in 1708. At the age of twenty-seven, 
tie was elected a member of parliament, and soon began to distin- 
guish himself as an eloquent and well-informed speaker. He enlist- 
ed early in the ranks of opposition, and in his speeches displayed 
such acuteness, vehemence, and depth of argumentation, as asto- 
nished the house, and marked him as worthy of the highest offices 
of the state. Wealth now poured in upon him, from private bene- 
factions, and from his public employments. In 1756, he received 
the seals of secretary of state for the southern department ; but his 
continuance in office was of short duration. His popularity, howe- 
ver, with the mass of the nation, recalled him to the secretaryship, 
in 1757. This restoration was the beginning of a new era of splen- 
did conquests, and of national glory. At the accession of George 
HI., his resignation took place, accompanied not only by a nation's 
regrets, but by the most substantial testimonials of his worth, on the 
part of the government. He deprecated, with all his eloquence, 
the measures relating to the American war, in the house of lords. 
His constitution, however, was, at this time, so enfeebled, that on 
one of these occasions, as he arose to speak, he fell into a fit, and 
died in a few days. 

As a statesman and orator, he stands, perhaps, at the head of the 
men of his profession, in modern times. It is said, that Walpole, 
the minister, surromided with power, and the unshaken support of a 
decided majority, never heard his voice, in the house of commons, 
without being alarmed and thunder-struck. 

13. Metastasio (Pietro Bonaventura) early began the exercise of 
the poetic art. At the age of ten, he often collected little audiences, 
who listened with attention and admiration to the sweetness of his 
extemporary verses. He found a patron in the celebrated Gravina; 
and without neglecting the muses, he first studied the law ; but at 
last assumed the clerical habit. Gravina, at his death, left the poet 
his whole fortune, worth 15,000 crowns, which the latter dissipated 



334 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

in two years by his convivial and hospitable habits. He now wrote 
for the stage, at the sohcitation of Bulgarella, the celebrated singer, 
and soon found himself the object of general admiration. A very 
large portion of his life, he spent at Vienna, enjoying the patronage 
of the sovereigns of Austria. He died at the age of eighty-four. 
Rome was the place of his birth, Vienna of his death. 

His works consist of twenty-six operas, eight sacred dramas, be- 
sides masques, sonnets, and other poetical miscellanies. They have 
been translated into various languages, and possess a high reputa- 
tion. The sweetest pictures of virtue and morality are delineated in 
his writings ; nor is he wanting in flights of sublimity. It is said, 
that Metastasio believed in no poetic inspiration, or propitious sea- 
sons for the composition of poetry, and that he trusted to no such 
thing in himself, but always set himself down calmly to his prescrib- 
ed task, and completed it as he would any other piece of business. 

14. Euler (Leonard) was born at Basil, 1707. His father intend- 
ed him for the ministry, but the genius of his son was bent to philo- 
sophical pursuits. In 1727, he went with the Bernouillis to Peters- 
burg. Here his publications ranked him among the greatest of phi- 
losophers. In 1740, he gained, with Maclaurin and D. Bernouilli, 
the prize of the academy of Paris, on the nature of tides. In 1741, 
he removed to Berlin, at the invitation of the king of Prussia, and 
assisted that monarch in the establishment of an academy of scien- 
ces. Here he produced his theory of the motions of the planets and 
comets, that of magnetism, &c. He died suddenly, while convers- 
ing with a friend, on the new planet, and as he was playing with 
one of his grand- children, at tea time. He was attacked by a fit of 
apoplexy. " I am dying," were his last words, and in a few hours 
after, he expired, aged 76 years. 

His mental powers were astonishing. While his fellow academi- 
cians asked four months to complete an important calculation, he 
finished it in three days, but so intense had been his application that 
it produced a fever, by which he lost the sight of one of his eyes. 
In one night, he calculated in his head, the six first powers of all the 
numbers above twenty, which he repeated the next day most correct- 
ly to his astonished friends. His erudition was immense. He read 
all the Latin classics, and had the history of all ages and nations, 
even to the minutest facts, ever present to his mind. Indeed, so re- 
tentive was his memory, that he could repeat the whole of the 
^neid. 

In society he was never absent like Newton or Adam Smith ; but 
like Hutton and Hume, he was thoughtless and playful in his hours 
of relaxation, and entered into all the trifles and frivolous anecdotes 
with which many choose to kill time while in company. 

15. Johnson, (Samuel,) surpassed by no one in literature, was bom 
at Litchfield, 1709. He was educated at Oxford in part, the insol- 
vency of his father obliging him to leave the university premature- 
ly. Involved in poverty, and with unpromising prospects before 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 335 

him, he tried various expedients to obtain a hvehhood,but abandon- 
ed them successively, till in company with his pupil Garrick, he 
went to London in quest of employment, in 1737. From this period 
till 1763, he was engaged in literary labours, under the pressure of 
poverty and disappointment. A part of the fruit of these labours 
were his immortal works, the English Dictionary and the Rambler. 
He completed his Dictionary, in the space of seven years, and re- 
ceived for it £1575; but owing to the urgency of his wants, the 
money had been advanced during the composition of the work. 
During this period he was once arrested for a debt of five guineas, 
from which he was relieved by the kindness of Richardson. His 
services to literature were not, however, to pass unrewarded ; for, in 
1762, he was presented by the king with a pension of £300 per 
annum, as the grant expresses it, for the moral tendency of his 
writings. The Lives of the Poets, he began in 1777, and complet- 
ed in 1781. This is a noble model of that description of writing, 
and embodies some of the choicest criticism in the English language. 

The inflictions of disease now began to be felt, and Johnson con- 
templated, not v/ithout gloomy apprehensions, the end of his earthly 
being. His fear of this event was excessive, for his temperament 
was deeply melancholic, and he did not at first perceive the true 
ground of confidence for sinful men. At least, his mind was not 
satisfied on this subject. But as he approached the tomb, darkness 
fled from his soul. He was soothed and cheered, he saAV the proper 
ground of confidence, and departed with the faith and consolation 
of a christian. 

Johnson's works are numerous ; none are indifferent, and some are 
of the highest order of literary excellence. His powers of conversa- 
tion were admirable. The particulars of his life, character, opinions, 
connexions, &c. have been minutely recorded by Strahan, Mrs. Piozzi, 
Boswell, and others. 

16. Franklin (Benjamin) was born at Boston, Mass., 1706. In 
his youth he was apprenticed to an uncle in the business of print- 
ing; and eager after knowledge, he read attentively, in the night, 
the works which he had printed in the day. In this way he early 
amassed a valuable stock of information, and as he possessed a re- 
flecting and philosophizing, and withal a practical sort of mind, he 
turned his knowledge to the best account. After he commenced 
business for himself in Philadelphia, he soon rose in public esteem, 
80 that he was called to offices of trust in the commonwealth, and 
finally, in the contention of the colonies with the mother country, he 
acted a most conspicuous and useful part. He was a member of the 
American congress during that eventful period. Several times in 
the course of his life, he went to Europe, where he was received 
with the distinction due to his pre-eminent worth as a statesman and 
philosopher. As a public negociator, he effectually secured the 
honour and the interests of his country. He died governor of Penn- 
sylvania, full of years and glory, 1790, aged eighty-four years. His 
discoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton, 



336 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

He is the father of that branch of philosophy which explains the 
laws of the electric fluid ; and the utility of the lightning rod, will 
forever point him out as a temporal benefactor of the human race. 
His political reflections have placed him by the side of the greatest 
legislators of antiquity. 

17. Gibbon (Edward) was born at Putney, 1737, of a respectable 
and ancient family. He acquitted himself poorly at the university, 
and it would seem, from his own account, that he was not much in 
the fault. " The fellows," he says, " were easy decent men, who 
supinely enjoyed the gifts of their founder ; their days were filled 
by a series of uniform employments ; the chapel and the hall, the 
coffee-house, and the common room, till they retired weary and well 
satisfied, to a long slumber. From the toil of reading, or thinking, 
or writing, they had absolved their consciences." The student with 
such examples before him, might well be excused for indolence. 
Gibbon afterwards, when at Lausanne, paid much attention to classi- 
cal literature, and acquired such a perfect knowledge of the French 
language, that he could both speak and write it with as much facility 
as his own, A portion of bis printed works is in French. 

The great work which has immortalized Gibbon, is his Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire. It was in the midst of the ruins 
of Rome, that he conceived the idea of this magnificent topic. This 
history cost him twenty years of labour. His resources for it he 
derived, in a considerable degree, from his own library, which con- 
sisted of ten thousand volumes. It is an elaborate and splendid 
production, and generally accurate. But his account of the causes 
of the progress of Christianity, is highly exceptionable, and he ap- 
pears throughout the work, a thoroughgoing skeptic and unbeliever. 
His sneers at the lioly religion of the Saviour, very much detract 
from the value of the work. He received from his booksellers, 
eight thousand pounds for his history. 

Among his miscellaneous works, are a volume or two of letters, 
highly spirited and entertaining, and rich with the stores of an 
elegant, cultivated, and playful mind. These, however, are also 
tinctured with infidelity. He wrote memoirs of himself. He ac- 
knowledges that from the Provincial Letters of Pascal, he " learned 
to manage the weapon of grave and temperate irony, even on sub- 
jects of ecclesiastical solemnity." In describing the characteristics 
of his intellect, he says, "Wit I have none; my imagination is 
rather strong than pleasing ; my memory both capacious and re- 
tentive. The shining qualities of my understanding are extensive- 
ness and penetration, but I want both quickness and exactness." 
He died of a dropsy, in 1794. 

18. Burns (Robert) was born, 1759, at Ayr, in Scotland. Though 
a ploughman originally, he rose to high poetical fame. He has been 
called the greatest untaught poet since Shakspeare. His poems, 
which are in the Scotch dialect, possess uncommon beauty, and an 
elegant simplicity. He no sooner appeared in print, than he was 
noticed and drawn from the plough, to associate with men of letters 
and opulence. By the exertions of his friends, a handsome sub- 



DISTINGUISI1I5D CHARACTERS. 337 

scription of nearly one thousand one hundred pounds was raised 
for him, and a place in the excise was obtained, and a farm rented, 
where he might exercise his genius, and live in comfortable affluence. 
But the change ruined him. He became a sot, and indulged in 
licentious pleasures, till his constitution gave M'-ay, and the tomb re- 
ceived him. His age was thirty-nine. 

19. Burke (Edmund) was the son of a respectable attorney, at 
Carlow, in Ireland, where he was born, 1730. He took his bache- 
lor's degree at Trinity College, Dublin, where, it is said, he was not 
much distinguished. In 1753, he came to London, and entered at 
the Middle Temple. With all his powers of elocution, he paid no 
serious attention to the law, but devoted his time principally to 
literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer, soon 
attracted notice, and his Essay on the Sublime, procured for him 
distinction. He therefore became a public man, and in 1765, was 
introduced into parliament. He then joined to the character of a 
most elegant writer, that of a most eloquent speaker. The American 
war, he denounced with great vehemence and justice, and was so 
happy at length as to witness its termination. When the French 
revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licen- 
tious principles, and with a view to counteract them in England, he 
published his celebrated Reflections. His Anti-Gallican zeal brought 
on a rupture between him and his former associates— Mr. Fox and 
others. From this time, though he affected to be as fond of liberty 
as ever, he favoured the administration of Mr. Pitt, and the court 
rewarded him with a large pension for his able services. By many, 
in his high- wrought enthusiasm in favour of the war against France, 
he was considered as the oracle and bulwark of the country. Some 
time before his death, Mr. Burke retired from public life, but though 
loaded with honours, he sunk, three years after, a melancholy victim 
to the recent loss of his only and dearly beloved son. His deatli 
occured in 1797. 

As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged. He was 
copious, elegant, and forcible. His pieces are numerous. His Re- 
flections were so interesting in the public opinion, that 18,000 copies 
were sold in a few weeks. 

20. Washington, (George,) who has filled the world with his own, 
and his country's glory, was born 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in 
Virginia, where his father was possessed of large landed property. 
Washington was educated under the care of a private tutor, and 
after making rapid progress in mathematics and engineering, he ein- 
l)raced the military profession. Here he displayed his great talents, 
particularly his wisdom and caution, and showed himself master of 
the knowledge of military stratagems. Eminent also was his per- 
sonal valour, and he proved he could fight, whenever he calculated 
upon the prospect of decisive advantage, or certain victory. He had 
greatly distinguished himself in several expeditions in his native 
state, before he was called to the command of the American army, 
in the war of the Revolution. How ably he sustained his country's 
cause, and to what a successful termination he brought the great 

29 



S38 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

struggle, our readers need not be informed. As a military captain, 
he ranks among the greatest, whether of ancient or modern times. 
But in some respects, he is beyond a comparison with the most ce- 
lebrated heroes. He had no stain of an unhallowed ambition. At 
the close of the war, America was in his power, but instead of a 
dictator, he became one of her most obedient sons. Military com- 
mand he assumed as a duty, and whenever an opportunity offered, 
he hastened to resign it, that he might retire to the shades and peace 
of private life. 

Washington was the first president of the United States, and was 
inaugurated into that high office, in 1789. Having served during 
two presidential terms, he declined the honour which his country- 
men would doubtless have again conferred upon him, an(i sought 
the gratifications of his farm at Mount Vernon. The All-wise Dis- 
poser did not suffer him to enjoy many years in his peaceful retire- 
ment. He was called away from life, rather unexpectedly, after a 
few days illness, 14th December, 1799. " He was buried with due 
national honours. America, in a public mourning, deplored in him 
the loss of her father, and of her friend, and a new city was erected 
on the borders of the Potomac, which, in becoming the capital of 
the United States, records to distant times, in bearing his name, the 
services, the patriotism, and the glories of her great and illustrious 
founder." 

Besides the qualities which distinguish the warrior and statesman, 
Washington was endowed with every virtue of humanity. His pas- 
sions were naturally strong, but he attained to a v/onderful command 
of them. He was modest, condescending, and affable, and excellent 
in all the relations of private and domestic life. His punctuality and 
method in managing his multifarious concerns, are a model to every 
one. And his exemplary conduct, as a Christian, and his calmness 
in death inspire the belief that his memorial is on high. 

21. Cowper, (William,) who died in 1800, was son of Dr. Cow- 
per, chaplain to George II., and rector of Berkhampstead, Herts. He 
was in his eighteenth year, when he left Westminster school, and as 
he was destined for the law, he entered at the Inner Temple, and at 
the age of thirty-one, was apprenticed clerk in the house of lords. 
But weakness of nerves, and the most distressing diffidence, unfitted 
him for public employment of any kind. He soon fell into a re- 
ligious melancholy, which arose to such a height, that in a fit of des- 
peration, he attempted his own life, but was providentially saved 
from so awful an end. He, however, attained at length the cheering 
and serene hope of religion. He became an author, not until he was 
fifty years of age. His first volume of poems, appeared in 1782, 
and in 1785, his second volume, which raised towards him the gene- 
ral voice of approbation. He afterwards executed a valuable trans- 
lation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in blank verse. 

About this time, (1787,) a similarity of literary underttikings, 
brought Cowper and Hayley the poet, into an intercourse of friend- 
ship, which continued to the last period of life. Hayley has com- 
memorated the genius and virtues of his friend, in an interesting and 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 339 

elegant account of his life and poetic labours. In this account, many 
of Cowper's letters are embodied, which, together with a volume or 
two, since published, place him at the head of English epistolary 
writing. In 1794, the king, as became the sovereign of an enlight- 
ened nation, honourably bestowed upon the poet a pension of three 
hundred pounds per annum. But the bounty came too late to be 
much enjoyed. Cowper was again sunk into dejection and religious 
melancholy, which continued, with few intervals of reason and hope, 
till he ceased to be an inhabitant of this world. He died at the age 
of seventy. 

The Task, is Cowper's most celebrated work, and abounds in 
beauties of every kind. It exhibits religion, particularly, in a most 
engaging form. 

22. Klopstock (Frederick Theophilus) was born at Quedlinburg, 
in 1724. He studied theology at Jena, where he wrote a great part 
of his Messiah, which he published in 1747. His name is immor- 
talized cliiefly by this poem. Though at the time of its publication, 
it was censured by some, it was admired by more, and Bodmer, and 
the Swiss in general, were loud iu its praises. Klopstock was in- 
vited into their country, whence he was called to Copenhagen, by 
the most tlattering promises, which were amply fulfilled. He died 
in 1803. His funeral was conducted with extraordinary pomp. It 
was attended by the senate of Hamburgh, where, at the time of his 
decease, he was residing as Danish legate. The diplomatic body, 
also the clergy, men of letters, and merchants, honoured his remains 
by their presence. The whole constituted a procession of seventy- 
six coaches. At Altona, it was joined by fifty more carriages, to 
the village of Ottensen, where he was buried, with every ceremony 
expressive of profound regard. 

As a writer, he is characterized by a fervid imagination ; but though 
rich in imagery, and lofty in sentiment, he is frquently obscure and 
turgid. Besides the Messiah, he was the author of three tragedies, 
called the Death of Adam, Solomon, and David. 

23. Heyne (Christian Gottlieb) was born in Silesia, 1729. He 
succeeded Gesner, in 1763, in the professorship of Rhetoric, at Got- 
tingen, where also he became secretary to the society of Sciences. 
He drew up a catalogue of the library at Gottingen, which made 150 
folio volumes. King George III. placed his three younger sons un- 
der his care, and they all treated him with the greatest respect. 
He died suddenly, in 1812. As an editor of the classics, he is just- 
ly celebrated, and his critical skill has been the admiration of the 
learned world. He is the first of his class. From poverty and ob- 
scurity, he afose to comfort and fame, and he is an encouraging in- 
stance of the rewards which often attend diligent and well-directed 
mental eiforts. 

24. Stael, (Anne Louisa Germaine Necker,) a baroness, was the 
daughter of the celebrated M. Necker, and born at Paris, 1766. She 
received a liberal education, and early displayed extraordinary ta- 
lents. Her understanding was of a masculine character. Perhaps no 
female of ancient or modern times, has equalled her in native strength 



340 MODERN HISTORY.-^PERIOD X. 

of intellect, especially as manifested in an elegant and profound phi- 
losophy. In 1786, she married baron de Stael, a Swede, by whom 
she had four children, two of whom only survived her. She began 
her literary career, 1789, in Letters on the Writings and Character 
of Rousseau, and soon afterwards took an active part in the French 
Revolution. At Paris, she engaged in political intrigues, to which 
she had a great propensity. The consequence was, that she offend- 
ed Buonaparte, who banished her from the capital. From this, she 
went to Germany, next to Italy, and twice visited England. She 
died in 1817. Her works are highly finished productions, among 
which may be particularly noticed, her Corinne, or Italy, a novel, 
and her book on The Influence of Literature upon Society. She 
seems to have been a votary of the new philosophy, so called. 

25. Dwight (Timothy) was born at Northampton^ Mass., on the 
14th of May, 1752. He was a grandson, on the mother's side, of 
the illustrious Edwards. His great capacity was early displayed, 
and to his excellent mother he was peculiarly indebted, by her pre- 
cepts and example, for the moral and intellectual qualities with 
which he was so richly gifted. At the age of seventeen he took 
the bachelor's degree at Yale College, and two years afterwards, he 
was elected a tutor of that institution. In the tutorship he continu- 
ed six years, after which he was variously employed for several 
years, residing for the most part of the time in his native place. In 
1783, he was settled in the Christian ministry, over the parish of 
Greenfield, in the town of Fairfield, Con. Here he continued twelve 
years, and acquired a high reputation as an eloquent preacher, and 
faithful pastor. His fame also, as a teacher of youth, (for he had 
previously been much engaged in that business,) was greatly ex- 
tended, by the academy which he established and superintended in 
that place. During this period he published his Conquest of Canaan, 
and his Greenfield Hill ; the one an epic, in eleven books, which was 
completed in his twenty-fourth year, the other a descriptive and 
didactic poem, in seven books. 

In 1795, he was elected to the presidency of Yale College, which 
station he retained till his death, in 1817. Under his auspices, that 
institution flourished in a most remarkable degree; every department 
was improved ; the standard of literary attainments was greatly 
raised; extensive religious reformations took place; and the num- 
ber of students, by the time of his death, had increased nearly 
three-fold. 

His death, which, under the visitation of a protracted and most 
severe disease, took place before he had reached the ordinary bounds 
of human life, gave a shock alike to the republic of letters and to 
the church of God. It was lamented as the fall of one of the great- 
est, best, and most useful men that have adorned the annals of this 
country. 

Since his death, his theological lectures, under the title of Theology, 
have been published in five octavo volumes, and have passed through 
several large editions, both in the United States and Great Britain. 
No American work, it is believed, has ever been more popular in the 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 341 

latter country, than this. His Travels also, have been extensively 
circulated at home and abroad. 

26. Buonaparte (Napoleon) was a native of Corsica, where he 
was born, in 1769. His education was chiefly military, though the 
wonderful powers of his mind, enabled him to appear with advan- 
tage on almost every subject which engages human attention. The 
times in which he entered on the stage of action, were big with 
events, and afforded him rare occasions for the display of his talents, 
and for the' gratification of that inordinate ambition which was so 
natural to him. The revolution in France was beginning to bear 
down all the land marks of former ages, and Buonaparte embraced 
the opportunity of playing his part on that imposing theatre. By 
a masterly management, and by a series of successes, he rose in the 
military profession, till he was placed at the head of it, and till he 
eventually placed himself at the head, not only of France, but of 
almost all the nations of continental Europe. From the time he 
was appointed to the command of the army of Italy, in 1796, to 
near the termination of the campaign against Russia, he met with 
an almost uninterrupted series of brilliant successes and victories, 
dictating peace to one nation after another, till the idea of an uni- 
versal empire seemed likely to be realized. From that period, 
though he gained two or three important victories, he met in gene- 
ral with sad reverses; but it was not until nearly the whole of 
Europe was allied against him, that he was crushed. Twice he 
abdicated the throne : in the former instance, retaining the sove- 
reignty of the island of Elba, whither he retired for a time, only 
again to seize on his dominion : in the latter instance, after his de- 
feat in the battle of Waterloo, fleeing to a British fleet with a view 
to protection. He was, however, exiled to St. Helena, and continued 
there, guarded by a body of British troops, till his death, which oc- 
curred on the 6th May, 1821 ; having been kept in confinement be- 
tween five and six years. 

Buonaparte has received, and will continue to receive the applauses 
or execrations of mankind, according as they view his mighty 
achievements, connected with the good which has incidently grown 
out of them, or with the evil which they directly produced, and 
which the author did not care to avert from the world. 

29* 



GENERAL VIEWS: 

OR A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE PECULIAR INSTITUTIONS 
OF THE MIDDLE AGES, AS THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, CHI- 
VALRY, &c. ; ALSO OF THE MANNERS AND CHARAC- 
TER OF THE GOTHIC NATIONS ; LEARNING AND THE 
ARTS; DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS; INCIDENTS 
AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS; AND THE PRESENT 
STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS IN RESPECT TO AG- 
RICULTURE, ROADS, CONVEYANCES, INTERCOURSE, 
EDUCATION, MANUFACTURES, &c. ; AND FINALLY, OF 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



The Feudal System. 

Sect. 1. A peculiar system of policy prevailed among all 
the nations of Europe, at an early period. Singular as it 
seems, and different from the establishments of the present 
times, it was the general state of society, among the ancestors 
of modern Europe. This was the Feudal System. 

The Feudal System, means that tenure on which the 
owners of land held their possessions, viz., an obligation to 
perform military service, whenever required by the chief to 
whom they owed allegiance. Such is its nature ; its origin 
and history, its principle and its effects will be soon pointed 
out. 

§ It was on the following plan, that the feudal policy was ar- 
ranged : — every freeman or soldier, upon receiving an allotment of 
conquered lands, bound himself to appear in arms against the com- 
mon enemy, whenever his leader should call upon him for this pur- 
pose. This military service was the condition upon which every 
one received, and the tenure by which he continued to hold his lands. 
It was not at first considered either a degradation or hardship. The 
same service which a vassal owed to his lord, was due from the lord 
to his king. The king required those among whom the conquered 
lands were distributed, to repair to his standard, with a number of 
followers, in proportion to the extent of their respective estates, and 
to assist him in his expeditions. This service was due to the king ; 
but when obedience was refused, it could be enforced, not by civil 
regulations, but only by war. Under such a system, the nobles or 



FEUDAL SYSTEM. 343 

barons, enjoyed a subordinate sovereignty, in their own dominions ; 
while their vassals or dependants, were in complete subjection to 
their will. 

2. TJie origin of this institution lies in a remote antiquity 
Some writers have attributed it to the kings of the Franks, 
who, after the conquest of Gaul, are supposed to have divi- 
ded their lands among their followers, on the condition of 
military service. But w^e must look for it to a remoter source. 
It is consonant with the usages of all warlike, barbarous na- 
tions, among whom we remark a strict subordination of the 
members of a tribe, to their chief or leader. This subordi- 
nation affords tlie clue to the general policy, and so far as the 
history of it can be traced, it is a fact, that Julius Caesar 
noticed it among the Gaulish nations, before the Christian era. 

§ With the Gauls, this subordination was peculiarly strong, and 
subsisted not only between the soldiers and their commander, but 
between the inferior towns or villages, and the canton or province 
to which they belonged. 

When in peace, every man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, 
and subject to no other burden, than that of military service, requi- 
red by his chief. When the province was at war, each village, though 
taxed to furnish only a certain number of soldiers, was bound to send, 
on the day appointed for a general muster, all the males capable of 
bearing arms, from whom the rated number was selected by the chief 
of the province. 

This relation between soldiers and their commander, sub- 
sisted among the Franks, as well as among the Gauls. It 
subsisted among the Romans also, who, to check the inroads 
of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant conquests, 
were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. 
To each officer in those garrison's, it w^as customary to as- 
sign a portion of land, as the pledge and pay of his service. 
These gifts were named benficia or fiefs. 

§ When the Franks overran Gaul, a great part of the land was 
found in the hands of the Romans, held by this tenure, as the rest 
was found so held by the Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to 
the same policy, would naturally adopt it, in the partition of their 
new conquests, each man being bound to service, on receiving his 
share of the land. 

The fiefs were at first revocable by the sovereign, and reverted to 
him on the death of the vassal. But the possession of fiefs, under 
the imbecile Merovingian kings, at length obtained independency 
and security of property. 

It was a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary, that it should 
be capable of being given out in portions, and that the vassal him- 



344 GENERAL VIEWS. 

self, holding his lands of the sovereign, by the tenure of military 
service, should be able to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving 
to them parts of his estate, to be held on the same condition, of fol- 
lowing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their lord, 
and paying, as a symbol of their subjection, a small annual present. 
3. The principle of policy upon which this singular estab- 
lishment was founded, was self-protection. The new settlers 
in a country, wished to secure themselves, not only against 
the attacks of the inhabitants whom they had expelled from 
their possessions, but especially against the inroads of fresh 
invaders. But unfortunately for the peace of society, it was 
attended with many evils, especially after the land had be- 
come unalienable property. 

The effects, therefore, of the feudal system, demand some 
notice in this place. It was natural, in those disorderly times, 
when the authority of government, and the obligation of 
general laws, were extremely weak, that the superior or over- 
lord should acquire both a civil and criminal jurisdiction over 
his vassals. Such power, in their hands, must have been an en- 
gine of oppression. They moreover exercised the privilege of 
coining money, and carried on wars against their private 
enemies. So situated, they disdained to consider themselves 
as subjects ; and the consequence was, that a kingdom was 
broken into as many separate principaHties, as it contained 
powerful nobles ; and the occasions of war thus became innu- 
merable. 

§ Every country in Europe was wasted, or kept in continual alarm, 
by the feuds of the barons, and in every country, vast multitudes of 
castles and places of strength, were erected for the security of des- 
potic chieftains, against domestic invasions. 

In the reign of Stephen of England, when the feudal system was 
at its height, not less than one thousand castles, with their depen- 
dencies, had been erected in the southern part of the Island. Pri- 
vate retaliation and revenge were the only law in the minds of proud 
and ferocious chieftains. The edicts of kings and magistrates were 
trampled on. A baron who was provoked by injury, met his adver- 
sary at the head of his vassals, in hostile array, and sought redress 
only by his sword. The most numerous and useful part of the com- 
munity, the common people, were no better than slaves, and though 
not chained by the leg, as was the fact with slaves among the Ro- 
mans, yet they were transferred from one lord to another, like cat- 
tle, and the implements of husbandry. They were styled serfs or 
villeins, a name implying their servitude and degradation. 

In this state of things, neither the innocent could be protected, nor 
the guilty punished, by the regal authority. A general anarchy pre- 



CHIVALRY. 345 

vailed ; the feelings of the people became familiarized to violence 
and blood, to despotism and injustice ; intellectual and moral im- 
provement was suspended, the arts and sciences were banished, the 
light of Christianity was obscured, and only the stern and rough 
virtues were nourished. Never was there a period in the annals of 
Europe so filled with atrocious actions, as that which intervened 
from the seventh to the eleventh century, the era of the prevalence 
of the feudal system. 

At the commencement of the twelfth century, this unhappy state 
of things began to abate, and government, laws and manners, exert- 
ed a degree of influence on the minds of men. Chivalry produced 
a propitious effect, and a variety of other causes, operated to check 
the licentiousness of the barons, and to soften their ferocity. Per- 
haps no one cause was more efficacious, than the establishment of 
standing armies, in the fifteenth century. This engine, wielded by 
kings, crushed the power of the nobles, and reduced them to order 
and obedience. 

The first monarch who adopted this measure, was Charles VII. of 
France, in the year 1445 ; but so opposed was it to the genius of feudal- 
ism, that it required the greatest boldness to carry it into execution. 
Charles, however, did not shrink from the attempt. He retained a 
large body of forces in his service, and appointed funds for their 
regular payment. The principal nobility soon repaired to his stan- 
dard ; and as the feudal militia were only occasionally called out, 
they were in time regarded with contempt by regular soldiers. This 
example was followed by the politic Henry VII., of England. 

Chivalry, 

Sect. 1. Nature^ Origin, and First Appearance. — 
Chivalry, or knighthood, was an institution common to Eu- 
rope, during the middle ages, having principally for its ob- 
ject, the correction of those evils that were peeuUar to the 
state of society which then existed. The feudal system at 
that time prevailed, the disorders flowing from which, con- 
nected with the ignorance and barbarism of the people, ren- 
dered some such institution as chivalry, necessary, provided a 
better could not be found. Considered in this aspect, chival- 
ry was co-existent with feudalism. It was designed as a cor- 
rective of feudal despotism, injustice, and licentiousness. It 
sought to support the weak, to protect the oppressed, to re- 
strain the lawless, to refine the rude, to avenge wrongs, and, 
especially, to maintain the rights, and defend the purity of 
the female sex. In its elements, it combined bravery, honour, 
courtesy, love, and religion. 



346 GENERAL VIEWS. 

§ In the origin of the term chivalry, or knighthood, reference was 
had to the nature of its duties, which were performed on horseback. 
Hence, the languages which were formed on a Latin basis, derived 
tlieir phrases descriptive of military duties on horseback, from cabal- 
lus, a -horse ; cabillarius, a horseman ; and cabillare, to ride — the 
letter b, being pronounced like v, in the south of Europe. In all 
languages of Teutonic origin, the same circumstance was expressed 
by words literally signifying service. The German knight, the Sax- 
.011 cniht, are synonymous with the French cavalier, the Italian ca- 
valiere, &c. The word, rider, also designated the same person. 

Chivalry was, in many respects, a beautiful and beneficial form of 
manners, though in others, it was highly objectionable, as will ap- 
pear in the sequel. We must not, however, confound the extrava- 
gant knight-errantry of the old romances, or even the natural chi- 
valry common to most nations, with the gallant and Christian chi- 
valry of Europe, which constituted a military barrier against oppres- 
sion. That was, in some degree, a moral institution, which sought 
to make travelling safe, and the intercourse of society refined and 
liberal, though it would have been more moral, had it not itself em- 
ployed violence. 

Chivalry had its origin in that state of society in which 
the feudal system arose ; and regarded particularly in a mi- 
htary light, we find it a part of the earliest condition of most 
of the European world. Its foundation, in fact, was the an- 
cient chaiacter of Europe, and it grew into the form and con- 
sistency which it at length assumed, from the following prac- 
tices common among the early Europeans, particularly the 
Germans, viz. from receiving their weapons in an assembly 
of the nations associating in clans, protecting and revering 
women, and performing acts of service when affection and 
duty commanded them. 

The exact time when these elements were framed into 
that system of thought and action, which we call chivalry, 
it is impossible to tell. Knighthood was certainly a distinc- 
tion of society before the days of Charlemagne. But it want- 
ed religion. When it began to be marked by religious rites, 
it formed a regular institution. Its union with religion, took 
place somewhere between the ninth and eleventh centuries. 
Its character was raised and perfected by the crusades. 

§ Religious rites were not used in the days of Charlemagne, for he 
girt the military sword on his son, Louis the Good, according to the 
rude principles of ancient Germanic chivalry ; and a century after- 
wards, Ave read of the English Edward the Elder, clothing Athel- 
stan, in a soldier's dress of scarlet, and fastening around him a gir- 
dle, ornamented with precious stones, in which a Saxon sword, iu a 



CHIVALRY. 347 

sheath of gold, was inserted. In the century following, however, 
during the reign of Edward the Confessor, we meet with the story 
of Hereward, a very noble Anglo-Saxon youth, being knighted by 
the abbot of Peterborough. He made confession of his sins, and 
after he had received absolution, he earnestly prayed to be made a 
legitimate knight. 

Knighthood was always, and essentially, a personal distinction, 
and in this respect, different from nobility. The nobility of Europe 
were the lords of particular districts of a country, and although ori- 
ginally they held their dignities only for life, yet their title soon be- 
came hereditary. 

Every person of noble birth, was required, when twelve years old, 
to take a solemn oath, before the bishop of his diocese, to defend the 
oppressed, &c. This was ordained at the Council of Clermont, in 
the eleventh century ; thus giving a public and sacred sanction to 
the humanities of chivalry. But besides the nobility, others might 
be promoted into the order, by meritorious valour. 

Almost the whole of Europe was affected wdth the chival- 
ric spirit. It flourished most, however, in France, Spain, and 
Germany, and more early developed itself as a fixed princi- 
ple of action, in these countries than in others. England, at 
length, was not undistinguished for its chivalry. 

2. Degrees of Chivalry. — There were three degrees in 
the cliivalry of Europe : — knights bannarets, knights, and 
esquires. 

A soldier must have passed through the ranks of esquire, 
and knight, before he could be classed with the knights ban- 
narets. That high dignity could be possessed only by a 
knight, wlio had served for a length of years in the wars, and 
with distinction, and who had a considerable retinue of men- 
at-arms, and other soldiers. 

§ The privileges of a knight bannaret, were considerable. He did 
not fight under the standard of any baron ; but he formed his sol- 
diers under his own. The baron and bannaret, as soldiers, were of 
equal authority. 

The second and most numerous class of chivalric heroes, 
consisted of knights. A general quahfication for knighthood, 
was noble or gentle birth, which, hi its widest signification, 
expressed a state of independence. 

§ There was no fixed amount of estate necessary for knighthood. 
It was, however, a costly dignity, and many were obliged to forego 
it, on account of its expenses. 

Though it was often bestowed as an ornament of custom on the 
nobility and gentry of a state, it never altogether lost its character of 
being a reward of merit. Men-at-arms, and other soldiers, were often 
exalted to the class of knights. 



348 



GENERAL VIEWS. 



The last class of chivalry, the squirehood, was composed 
of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knight, 
and superior to the men-at-arms. Many of them, on various 
axjcounts, remained in this station, during all their military 
career. 

§ It was a maxim in chivalry, that a man had better be a good 
esquire, than a bad knight. Military honours could be reached by 
the squirehood, as well as by the knighthood of a country. 

3. Education of a Knight. The education of a knight 
in the family of a feudal lord, generally commenced at the 
age of seven or eight years. The place of education was 
sometimes a school appointed by the nobles of the country, 
but most frequently the nobleman's own castle, or that of 
some brother nobleman, served. 

§ The duties of the boy, for the first seven years of his service, 
were chiefly personal. He learned the dignitv and beauty of obedi- 
ence, being made to feel it a privilege to aUend the lord and his 
lady in the hall, and follow them in their exercises of war and pas- 
time. The intellectual and moral education of the boy was given 
by the ladies of the court. 

From the lips of the ladies, the gentle youth learned both his 
catechism and the art of love. He was directed to regard some one 
lady of the court as the type of the future mistress of his heart ; 
she was the object of all his hopes and wishes ; to her he was duti- 
ful, faithful, and courteous. 

, The ingredients of religion, love, and war, were strangely com- 
bined in chivalry. Surrounded by noble females and valorous 
cavaliers, the first impressions of the future knight were on these 
subjects ; and he was taught to regard chivalry and its honours, as 
tlie most noble object of ambition. 

The military exercises of the youth were not many ; and 
they were important only as they were the earhest ideas of 
his life. During the first seven years, he was called a valet, 
damoiseau, or a page — in the old English ballads a child. 

§ During this period, he was taught to leap over trenches, to launch 
or cast spears and darts, to sustain the shield, in his walk to imitate 
the measured tread of the soldier, and in mock battle to fight against 
stakes or liis youthful companions. 

At the age of fourteen, he received the title of armiger, or 
esquire ; and though he was then authorized to carry arms, 
yet his personal domestic service continued for some time. 
His education was not completed, till the age of twenty-one. 

§The esquire prepared the refection in the morning; and at 
dinner, he, as well as the pages, attended at the table, and presented 
to the lord and his guests the water used for washing. The knight 



CHIVALRY. 34^ 

and the squire never sat before the same table, not even in the case 
of father and son— so strict was the principle of chivalric subordina- 
tion. The squires often made the beds of their lords. Each one 
had his respective duties — one was the squire of tlie chamber, or 
the chamberlain, and another the carrying squire. But their many 
duties cannot here be described. Spenser, in the following stanza, 
beautifully paints the domestic squire discharging some of his 
duties. 

" There fairly them receives a gentle squire, 

Of mild demeanor and rare courtesy 

Right cleanly clad in comely sad attire ; 

In word and deed that show'd great modesty, 

And knew his good to all of each degree, 

Hight reverence. He them with speeches meet 

Does faire entreat, no courting nicety. 

But simple, true, and eke untliined sweet, 

As might become a squire so great persons to greet." 

In the life of a squire, the anxieties of love, and military exercises, 
were commingled. Chaucer delightfully paints the softer employ- 
ment. 

" Singing he was or floyting all the day, 

He was as fresh as is the month of May, 

He could songs make, and well endite, 

Just and eke dance, and well pourtraie and write ; 

So hote he loved, that by nighterdale* 

He slept no more than doth the nightingale." 

He practised every mode by which strength and activity could 
be given to the body. He learned to endure hunger and thirst, heat 
and cold, in their extremes, and to plunge all covered with dust into 
the running stream. He accustomed himself to wield the sword, to 
thrust the lance, to strike with the axe, and to wear armour. But 
no exercise was more important than that of horsemanship. Of the 
true knight, it could be said, 

•' Wei could he sit on horse and fair ride." 

4. Inauguration of a Knight. The full dignity of 
knighthood, was seldom conferred on a squire before the age 
of twenty-one. The ceremonies of inauguration were so- 
lemn. The preparation consisted in prayer, confession, and 
fasting — was accompanied by clothing him with a white 
dress, which was considered symbolical of the purity of his 
new character ; and by throwing over him a red garment, 
which was to mark his resolution to shed his blood in the 
cause of heaven. These and other rites were a necessary 
preliminary. 

* Niffht-time. 

30 



350 GENERAL VIEAVS, 

A chui'ch, or hall of a castle, was generally the place of 
inaiiguratioD. The candidate first offered his sword to the 
priest, who blessed it. Before it was returned to him, he took 
his oaths of chivalry. 

§ He solemnly swore to defend the church, to attack the wicked, 
1o respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to pre- 
.serve tlie country in tranquilhty, and to shed his blood, even to the 
last drop, in behalf of his brethren. 

The young warrior having kneeled with clasped hands 
before the supreme lord in the assembly, (a purely feudal 
ceremony,) and having declared that his only object is to 
maintain religion and chivalry, was now invested with all 
the exterior marks of the order. The knights and ladies of 
the court attended on him, and delivered to him the various 
pieces of his harness. 

§ The armour varied at different periods and in different countries, 
but some matters were of permanent usage. The spurs were al- 
ways put on first, and the sword was belted on last. 

The concluding sign of being dubbed or adopted into the 
order of knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord to 
the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the 
body, the neclv, whereon it was struck. The lord then pro- 
claimed him a knight, in the name of God and the saints 

§ The ceremonies of inauguration, which have been concisely des- 
cribed, v/ere gone through when knighthood was conferred on great 
and public occasions of festivity, but they often gave place to the 
power of rank, and the necessity of circumstances. Princes were 
exempted from the laborious offices of page and squire. Men who 
were distinguished soldiers were often adopted into chivalr)^ on the 
eve of a battle, as it was considered that a sense of their new 
honours would inspire their highest gallantry. 

5. Equipment of a knight. The horse of the cavalier 
was his peculiar pride, and skill in the managejnent of the 
animal was a distinction deemed worthy of every effort. The 
knight bore about with him a variety of the instruments of 
death. His chief offensive weapon was the lance. His other 
offensive weapons were a sword, (a favourite weapon,) dag- 
ger, battle-axe, and maces. His defensive armour was also 
various. He had his shield, helmet with its visor and beaver, 
and body harness made of plates of steel, to which different 
names were given according to the different parts of the body 
which it covered. A long flowing robe, reaching down to the 
heels, constituted the dress of the knight. 



CHIVALRY. 



351 



Some of the defensive armour was so constructed, that it could 
be rolled up, and carried by the squire on horseback. It was too 
rigid, heavy, and cumbersome to be worn for a long time together, 
tliough the knights were often subjected to that inconvenience. 
When they were completely armed, no weapon could reach the bo- 
dy. It was not often that a knight could be killed, except by being 
unhorsed. In that event, a thin dagger, which was worn by each 
assailant, was employed. This could be thrust into the body between 
the plates. 

It is only in romance, that we read of swords ciltting through that 
solid front' of iron, by which a knight was protected. The only way 
in which death could be inflicted, when he was mounted, was, by 
thrusting a lance through the small hole in the visor. Such a mode 
of death was not very common, for the cavalier always bent his face 
almost to the saddle-bow, when he charged. He might, however, 
be unhorsed, in the shock of meeting. In that case, he was at the 
mercy of the foe, who was in the better condition. 

The horse of the knight was defended by mail, or plate, agreeably 
to the fashion of the age. His head, chest, and flanks, were either 
wholly or partially protected, and sometimes, on occasions of pomp, 
he was clad in complete steel. 

6. The Chivalric Character. — In the character of a true 
knight, were combined many virtues and noble endowments. 
It necessarily included, also, some prominent defects. Com- 
panionship tJi A?yns, was a sacred principle, and a knight 
would fly to the relief of his companion in arms, even were his 
services demanded by a female, at the time. His valour was 
connected with modesty, and both were, in the highest de- 
s^ree, conspicuous. In chivalric war, much humanity was 
displayed, though in contentions of a different kind, it was 
unhappily suppressed. As a knight fought for the church, he 
was intolerant, and towards infidels and heretics he ceased to 
exhibit his wonted forbearance. His sense of honour was 
keen, and his independence was consistent with discipline 
and submission. His whole course was dictated by a regard- 
to religion. His devotions were frequent. Religion entered 
into all the observances of chivalry, but it was only the religion 
of the times — a form rather than spirit — too corrupt to be a safe 
guide. The knight, finally, was characterized iDy a very re- 
markable fidelity to obhgations, by generosity, and by courtesy. 

§ Companionship in arms, was the strongest tie in chivalry : 

" From this day forward ever mo, 
Neither fail, either for weal or wo, 
To help other at need. 
Brother, be now true to me, 
And I shall be as true to thee. 



352 GENERAL VIEWS. 

Such a thirst for renown hi arms, for the display of vahancy, had 
a knight, that he would sometimes attempt the very height of he- 
roism, and engage in the execution of impossibilities. It was this 
passion, which dictated many of his vows. Certain young knights 
of England, during the French wars of Edward III., each bound up 
one of his eyes with a silk ribbon, and swore before the ladies and 
the peacock, that he would not see with both eyes, until he had ac- 
complished certain deeds of anus in France. 

The valiancy of chivalry was finely chastened by humility : 

" And of his port, as meek as is a maid.' 

Every hero, as well as Chaucer's knight, demeaned himself in all 
things, as if God solely had controlled ; and in the divine name, used 
his arms, without vaunting or praising himself; for praise was regard- 
ed as blame, in the mouth of him who commended his own actions. 

The clemency of chivalry was often shown, especially in sparing 
inferior people. As a knight could gain no honour in slaying an un- 
armed peasantry, so he seldojii attacked one of this class ; and even 
an enemy of his own order, if prostrate and supplicating, was not often 
despatched. 

Stih, he was ruthless towards the infidel and heretic. He knew 
no other argument than the sword, to gainsay the infidel, and he 
was ready, at all times, to " thrust it into the belly of a heretic as far 
as it would go." 

Of his moral virtues, perfect fidelity to a promise was very con- 
spicuous ; for his nobleness disdained any compromise with conve- 
nience or circumstances. However absurd the vow, still he was 
compelled to perform it, in all the strictness of the letter. 

Knights were renowned for tlieir courtesy; and this principle, like 
every other blessing of modern times, had its origin in the Christian 
religion. The world thought, that courtesy and chivalry accorded 
together, and that villanous and foul words, were contrary to an 
order which was founded on piety. A knight was always spoken ot 
as gentle. The following anecdote curiously marks this quality of 
chivalric manners. The wife and sister of Du Gueselin, were once 
living in a castle, which was attacked by a force of Normans and 
Englishmen. The success was great and important; but public in- 
dignation was excited against the invaders, because they had trans- 
gressed the license of war, in being guilty of the uncourteous action 
of surprising and disturbing ladies while they were asleep. 

7. Every day life of the Knight. — The military and mo- 
ral qualities of knighthood, were fostered by all the circum- 
stances of chivalric life, even those of a peaceful nature. 
Their common life was one of amusement and revelry, in 
which the miages of their fiivouiite pursuits were easily re- 
called to their minds. They passed most of their hours of 
peace, in the diversions of falconiy and chess-playing, in lis 
tening to the minstrels, who sung the feats of chivalry, in read 



CHIVALRY. 353 

ing romances, and in conversation, which turned ahnost 
wholly on love and war. Entertainments, also, at each 
other's castles, were frequent ; in these, the utmost merriment 
prevailed. 

§ The minstrel's lay, the poetry of the troubadour, the romance of 
the learned clerk — all spoke of arms and amours — of the duties and 
sports of chivalry. Every baronial knight had his gay troop of min- 
strels, that accompanied him to the tlefd, and afterwards chanted in 
his hall the martial deeds which had renowned his family. 

At their entertainments, the knights were wont to repose on 
couches, or sit on benches. The guests were placed two by two, 
and only one plate was allotted to each pair ; for to eat on the same 
trencher or plate with any one, was considered the strongest mark 
of friendship or love. Peacocks and pheasants were the peculiar 
food of knights, on great and festival occasions. 

8. The Chivalric lady-love. The females of chivalry, 
possessed a distinct and peculiar character. The lady, like 
the knight, was regularly trained up to become, at length, the 
mistress of his affections. She was commonly educated in 
the castle of some knight or baron, her father's friend. One 
of the first duties or accomplishments which she learned, was 
that, of courtesy, and condescension to her inferiors. In those 
days, her mental education was not of a high polish. Some 
knowledge of medicine was deemed desirable, as chivalry re- 
cjuired her to take care of her wounded knight. Her dress 
was required to be plain, except on festive occasions. 

§ The only tasks on her intellect, were to repeat the prayers of the 
church, to sing a brief piece of poetry, or the longer romaunt. She 
could also play on the harp. Sometimes the graver sciences were 
introduced into female education. There were solitary instances, in 
which might be applied what was sung of Felice, the daughter of 
the earl of Warwick. 

" Busy they (her masters) were that maiden to leer, 

And they lered her of astronomy 

Of arrasmetrick, and of geometry ; 

Of sophistry she was also witty, 

Of rhetorick and of other clergy ; 

Learned she was in musick, 

Of clergy was her none like." 
In that singular system of manners which we call chivalric, love, 
next to religion, was the most intiuential principle. In many instan- 
ces, it was doubtless the most influential. The true knight was a 
more perfect personification of love, than poets and romancers ever 
dreamed. The fair object of his passion, reigned in his heart, with 
absolute dominion. 

Every gallant spirit of " gentle" Gower's days, the reign of Ed 
ward III., said of his mistress, 

30* 



354 GENERAL VIEWS. 

" What thing she bid me do, I do, 
And where she bid me go, I go," 

Chivalric love, had both its absurdities and impieties. Kniglits 
were not satisfied to fight in defence of the ladies, and to joust in 
their honour, but from the extravagance of their love, each knight 
maintained at the point of his lance, that his mistress surpassed all 
other ladies in beauty. 

Chivalric love, became a foe to the distictions of wealth and rank, 
and many a knight, whose whole fortune lay in his prowess, gained 
ihe hand of high born beauty. 

In chivalry there was always a generous consideration for 
\'\'^oman. Hence proceeded the honorable maxim, that it was 
not just or courteous to take ladies in war. 

§ in the wars of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the emperor 
Conrad, as an ofifended sovereign, had refused all terms of capituln 
lion to the garrison of Winnisberg ; but as a courteous knight, he 
permitted the women to depart with such of their precious effects as 
they tjiemselves could transport. The gates of the town were 
ilirown open, and a long procession of matrons, each bearing a hus- 
band or a father, or brother, on her shoulders, passed in safety 
through the applauding camp. 

9. Tournaments and Jousts. Tournaments and jousts, 
were both the offspring and the cherisher of chivalry. , No 
amusement or exercise was so delighted in by gallant knights 
c?nd beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobihty, and the gentry, 
as these images of war. They were often splendid beyond 
description, especially at coronations, the marriage of princes, 
and important victories. 

Tournaments were military exercises, performed by two 
parties of cavaliers, with hurtless weapons. 

§ If the occasion was high and solemn, it was announced at the 
courts of different sovereigns, by heralds, sent by the king who pro- 
f>osed to hold the martial exercise ; and all those who valued their 
knighthood, together with respected dames and maidens, were invi- 
t*^d to repair to the appointed city, and prove their chivalry. Not 
ktiights alone, but kings and princes, pricked over the plain in gal- 
latit and graceful array ; for though they were not expected to stoop 
to many knightly observances, they were eager to prove their chi- 
valric cliaracter, by deeds of valour. For this they overlooked the 
pride of station 

Not every knight might tourney. He must have been guilty ol 
no uncliivalric deportment. He must never have blasphemed God, 
or offended the ladies ; must never have been false, ungrateful, or 
deserted a brother-in-arms in battle. The rules of tourneying, how- 
ever, were sometimes evaded. Young knights, particularly, often 
concealed their names, and came in disguise. 

The place of combat was, the lists, a large space, surround- 



CHIVALRY. 355^ 

ed by ropes or railing, in single or double rows. Sometimes 
there was a wooden division in the lists or area, to prevent 
the horses of the adverse knights from careering against one 
another. 

The ladies were the supreme judges of tournaments ; but 
they generally deputed their power to a knight, who was cal- 
led on this account, the Knight of Honour. They some- 
times proposed the rewards, such as a diamond, ruby, <fcc. 
But the meed of renown was oftener military. 

§ When the knights reached the lists, their arms were examined 
by the constable, in order that only hurtless ones might be used. 
But, notwithstanding this regulation, there existed a strong disposi- 
tion, in many instances, to convert tournaments into real battles. 
Victory at a tournament was scarcely less glorious than victory in 
the field. The ladies, the minstrels, and the whole assembled mul- 
titude, acclaimed the conqueror. The practice of converting the 
elegant tournament into a deadly fray, occasioned an oath to be im- 
posed on all knights, tliat they would frequent tournaments, solely, 
to learn military exercises. 

The chivalric bands were so well poised, that one encounter seldom 
terminated the sport. The lances were broken, horses and knights 
overthrown, and the tide of victory flowed to either end of the lists. 
The air was rent with names of ladies. Each knight called upon 
his mistress to assist him, thinking that there was a magic in beauty, 
to sustain his strength and courage. Death sometimes, though not 
often, ensued. It was on the whole a hazardous and dissolute amuse- 
ment. The revelry which followed, lasted often two or three days. 
The court of Rome was justly hostile to tournaments, and thunder- 
ed its denial of christian sepulture to those who fell in a tilting 
ground ; but still the practice went on. 

Of jousts, there were two sorts ; the joust to the utterance, 
and the joust of peace. The former expressed a single com- 
bat between two knights, who were generally of different 
nations. In strictness of speech, the judicial combat was a 
joust to the utterance; and so was every duel, whether lawful or 
unlawful ; but with such jousts, chivalry has no direct con- 
cern, though the absmd and iniquitous practice of modern 
dueUing, grew out of its principles. 

§ The joust was not so favourite an amusement as the tournament, 
for baronial pomp was not necessary to its display ; often was it held 
without a store of bright ladies distributing the prize. 

The joust of peace often took place at the conclusion of a 
tournament. A knight who had acquired honour, would 
ride about the lists, and call on the surrounding cavaliers, by 
their valiancy, and for the love of the ladies, to encounter him 



356 GENERAL VIEWS. 

in three strokes of tb.e lance. The joust was more frequent- 
ly held at a place expressly appointed for the occasion. The 
mode of combat was always specifically described. 

Jousts possessed a more martial character than tourna- 
ments. Such usually was the dexterity of the combatants, 
that the encounter of the lance was seldom fatal. 

§ Through the long period of the middle ages, tournaments and 
jousts were the elegant pastimes of Europe and Greece. Knight- 
hood had its triumph over classical institutions, when the games of 
chivalry were played in the circus of Constantinople. In the West 
tliey survived chivalry itself, whose image they had reflected and 
brightened, for changes in the military art, did not immediately af- 
fect manners ; and the world long clung with fondness to those 
splendid and graceful, though dissipating shows which had thrown 
light and elegance over the warriors and dames of yore. 

10. Oi^ders of Knighthood. Chivalry had its various 
orders, or associations of cavaliers, formed for specific purposes, 
generally of a benevolent character. Ten of them remain 
to the present time. Most of the present orders are otherwise 
than of a chivalric origin. The orders of chivalry were of 
two general descriptions, viz. religious and military. They 
extended over various countries, particularly the Holy Land, 
England, Spain, France, and Italy. Some of the rehgious 
oi'ders were those of the Templars, St. James, Calatrava, 
Alcantara, the Lady of Mercy, and St. Michael. In the re- 
ligious orders, the cavaliers were bound by the three great 
monastic vows, of chastity, poverty, and obedience. 

The military orders, were imitations of the religious. Those 
of the Garter, the Golden Fleece, and St. Michael, in France, 
were clearly of chivalric origin. Many others that now ex- 
ist, cannot boast of such a descent. All these institutions had 
particular rules by which they professed to be governed, but 
they varied with the spirit of the times. They need not 
here be recited. 

§ Our limits will not permit us to describe the character and pro- 
gress of chivalry in the several countries in which it flourished, or 
to detail the exploits of renowned individuals. It belongs to this 
work to sketch only the general features of the system, which has 
been done. It remains now to notice the merits and effects of 
chivalry. 

IL Merits and Effects of Chivalry. Chivalry was, in 
many respects, a whimsical institution ; but it well suited the 
period in which it rose and flourished, and seems to have 



CHIVALRY. 3^ 

been needed in those asfe?. It was probably the best system 
that could have been adopted to aid the improvement of so- 
ciety, at a time when Christianity was so deeply corrupted. 
The principles of this religion, as it was then understood and 
practised, were incorporated in it ; and much of (he good 
which it included, was the fruit of the Gospel. Its theory, 
however, was in several respects indefensible, and its practice 
was rarely ever so good as its theory. Still we find much to 
admire in chivalry, considering the character of the nations 
among whom it prevailed. 

§ " The patriarchal system of manners, shaped and sanctioned by 
Christianity, formed the fabric of chivalry; and romance, with its 
many coloured hues, gave it light and beauty. The early ages of 
Em'ope gaily moved in all the wildness and vigour of youtji ; imagi- 
nation freshened and heightened every pleasure ; the world was a 
vision, and life a dream. The common and palpable value of an ob- 
ject, was never looked at, but every thing was viewed in its connec- 
tion with fancy and sentiment. Prudence and calculation were not 
suffered to cheek noble aspirations ; duties were not cautiously re- 
garded with a view to limit the performance of them ; for every 
principle was not only practised with zeal, but the same fervid wish 
to do well, lent it new obligations. From these feelitigs proceeded 
all the graceful refinements, all the romance of chivalry." 

This institution fostered civilization, and was therefore needed in 
a barbarous age. It refined the manners, and added harmony to 
social intercourse, where otherwise little but rudeness and misrule 
would have prevailed. It contributed to the safety and order of 
society, inasmuch as it thinned the ranks of robbers and ruffians. 
It infused kind and beneficent feelings into the bosom, and enjoined 
external propriety of conduct, and courtesy of behaviour. It culti- 
vated a humanity which was not limited by kindred or country. 
As chivalry was spread over Europe, it formed mankind into one 
band, one order of men. The features of war were softened by its 
influence. It taught the warrior gentleness and clemency. A nice 
sense of honour and a scrupulous regard of truth were fostered by 
its maxims. It was a principle, as well as a feeling and a love in 
chivalry, to guard and cherish woman, and many of its amenities 
proceeded from her mild influence. In fine, it corrected the peculiar 
evils of the feudal system, haughtiness, tyranny, oppression, and 
misrule. 

Notwithstanding these beneficial effects of chivalry, it must be 
acknowledged that other effects attended it, which may well qualify 
the language of praise. Still we are willing to believe, that it did 
more good than mischief, in a secular view. It has, however, been 
more condemned than lauded, and every one knows the exquisite 
ridicule which has been thrown upon it, or rather upon its extrava- 
gancies, by the inimitable author of Don Quixote. It resulted in 



358 GENERAL VIEWS. 

some degree in looseness of morals, in respect even to the intercourso 
of the sexes; the purity of which it so highly professed to regard 
and defend. Instances of gross violence and injustice in the con- 
duct of knights, too often appeared ; and it nourished feelings of re- 
sentment and the love of war. While it stript war of many 
features of savageness by the civilities and courtesies with which it 
surrounded it, it at the same time nourished that proud and sensi- 
tive spirit, falsely called honour, which suffers no wound, without 
seeking redress in the private duel. 

These, it is thought, are mostly exceptions to its general spirit and 
tendency ; and as to individual persons, it is doubtless too true, that 
recreant knights may be found, on the same principle, that false pro- 
fessors may be found of the only true religion on earth, viz., the im- 
perfection of human nature. 

A witty old English author says, that "errant knights were arrant 
knaves." And another remarks, that "their horses groan under the 
burden, not of weapons, but of wine; not with lances, but cheeses; 
not with swords, but with bottles ; not with spears, but with spits." 
This is spleen. 

It is difficult to define the precise period of the duration of 
cJiivahy. It was a light which was kindled in a dark age, 
and it went out when that age was beginning to be brightened 
with superior luminaries. Viewing the subject in its great 
and leading bearings, chivalry may be said to be coeval with 
the middle ages of Europe, and all its power ceased when 
new systems of warfare were matured, W'hen the revival of 
letters was complete and general, and the reform.ation of re- 
ligion gave a new subject for the feelings and thoughts of 
men. 

Romances. 

A peculiarity of the middle ages, connected with chivalry 
and subservient to it, was the production of Romances. These 
were books which describe an extravagant kind of chivalry, 
and were then read with singular avidity, and indeed con- 
stituted the principal reading of the people. They were so 
called, from the language in which they were written ; Ro- 
mance, a mixture of the Gallic and Latin. They first ap- 
peared about the middle of the twelfth century, and their ori- 
gin is to be traced to the Proven9al Troubadours, a sort of 
story tellers and bards in Provence. In these productions, it 
has been observed, appeared the first dawnings of modern 
literature. 

§ The more ancient romances did not record contemporary events, 
since fiction or exaggeration here, would have been detected. Their 



PILGRIMAGES. 359 

subjects were an ideal chivalry. They depicted not only knights, 
setting forth to redress all manner of wrongs, but magicians, dra- 
gons and giants, invulnerable men, winged horses, enchanted armour, 
and enchanted castles ; adventures which nobody could really be- 
lieve, but the possibility of which, owing to the ignorance and su- 
perstition of tlie times, might have been admitted by the readers. 

Among others of the early romances, the following were celebra- 
ted, viz: — the Seven Champions of Christendom, Sir Launcelot, 
Amadis de Gaul, Charlemagne and his Twelve Peers, King Arthur, 
and the noble kniglits of the Round Table. From these sprung a 
progeny no less wild and extravagant, till in a subsequent era, at a 
considerable distance, a revolution occurred in this species of wri- 
ting. Romances of a new order, appeared in the Astra^a of Durfe, 
the Grand Cyrus, the Clelia and Cleopatra, of Mad. Scuderi, and 
others, which, though leaving out the dragons and necromancers, 
were still unnatural, and too marvellous for belief. Both classes of 
these productions, partook of a moral and virtuous turn, and highly 
extolled heroism, generosity, and piety. The familiar novel of mod- 
ern ages, was the last form of the Romance. 

These books, as an author has observed, " composed upon the 
striking subjects of gallantry, war, satire, and history, first awaken- 
ed Europe from its ignorance and lethargy, amused the minds of 
men with grotesque and lively images and descriptions, and first 
taught them to think, reflect, and judge upon subjects of imagina- 
tion." Much of the popular literature of Italy, consisted of roman- 
ces ; and the chief topics of them were the exploits, both in arms 
and amours, of Charlemagne and his Paladins. In England, so much 
wa.s thought of romances, that Caxton, the father of English print- 
ing, could exhort, " Read the noble volumes of St. Graal, of Laun- 
celot, of Perceforest, of Gawayn, of Tristem, of Galaod, of Perce- 
val, and many more. Then shall you see manhood, courtesy, and 
gentilness." 

Pilgrimages. 

The pilgrimages so common to the people of Europe, be 
fore and at the time of the crusades, were journeys under 
taken to some holy place, in order to adore the relics of some 
deceased saint. They were considered meritorious acts, a re- 
hgious discipline of great importance. It was about the mid- 
dle ages of the church, that pilgrimages began to be made, 
but their reputation was highest after the end of the eleventh 
century, when almost everyone was inclined to visit places of 
devotion, not excepting kings and princes, and even bisho[>i 
did not hesitate to absent themselves from their churches, on 
the same account. The places most visited, were Jerusalem, 
Rome, Tours, and Compostella. 

§ Jerusalem, as the resort of pilgrims, was far the most famous, 



360 GENERAL VIEWS. 

and all the wars of the crusades were occasioned on account of that 
place. As to Compostella, we find that in 1428, abundances of h- 
censes were granted by the crown of England, to captains of Eng- 
lish ships, for carrying numbers of devout persons thither, to the 
shrine of St. James, provided, however, that those pilgrims should 
first bind themselves by an oath, not to take any thing prejudicial to 
England, nor to reveal any of its secrets, nor to carry out with them 
any more gold or silver, than what would be sufficient for their 
reasonable expenses. 

In almost every country where popery has been established, pil- 
grimages have been common. In England, the shrine of St. Tho- 
mas-a-Becket, was the chief resort of the pious, and in Scotland, St. 
Andrew's, where, as tradition informs us, was deposited a leg of the 
holy apostle ! In Ireland, pilgrimages have been continued, even 
down to modern times. 

Manners and Character of the Gothic, or Scandinavian 
Nations. 

The brevity of the plan of this work, will not admit a separate ac- 
count of the manners and character of the various nations, whose 
history it narrates. The genius and national character of the Ro- 
mans, during the long period in which they were masters of the 
world, have been exhibited to some extent in the political history of 
that people. The manners and character of the present nations of 
Europe, and of nations decended from them, in other parts of the 
globe, except the particulars included in the account of chivalry, 
the feudal system, &c. already given, must be learned from more ex- 
tended works. But in regard to those barbarous nations of the north, 
who conquered the Roman empire, and from whom many of the 
present European communities are descended, it is proper that some- 
thing should be said in these General Views. The manners and in- 
stitutions of these tribes, are curious objects of inquiry, from their 
influence on the constitutions and national character of most of the 
modern kingdoms of Europe. The inhabitants of these kingdoms 
are a mixed race, compounded of the Goths and of the nations whom 
they subdued, and consequently the manners, laws, and insstitutions 
of the conquerors and tlie conquered, would naturally affect and 
modify those of one another. 

The Gothic, or Scandinavian nations, were the Goths, 
properly so called, the Gepidae, the Lombards, the Heruli, 
and the Vandals. Other barbarous tribes from the north of 
Asia or Furope, were the Huns, Alains, Bulgari, Suevi, 
Burgundians, Franks, Alemani, Normans, Saxons, &c. The 
parts which these various nations acted, in the political histo- 
ry of the world, have been described in the proper place. 
Their manners, character, &c. particulaily those of the Scan- 



GOTHIC NATIONS. 361 

dinavian tribes, may be learned, in part, from the following 
brief account. 

(1.) Some characteristics were common to them all. What- 
ever difference of manners and customs there may have been 
among the various tribes of Scandinavian origin, the promi- 
nent features of their character, appear to have been the 
same. They were formed by all their habits and education 
for a brave and conquering race. The corrupted Roman 
world could not but fall before a people, whose bodily frame 
was invigorated by the climate which they inhabited, and 
inured to danger and fatigue, whose habitual occupation w^as 
war, and whose religion taught tliem that the loss of life in 
battle, w^as a certain passport to tlie halls of Odin. 

§ The Scandinavian and Scythian nations, prohably had the same 
origin, inasmuch as they agreed in manners and institutions. The 
characteristics of the Scythians, as given by Herodotus, may be ap- 
plied to the Scandinavians. Their hfe was spent in hunting, pastu- 
rage, and predatory war. They entertained a high respect for their 
women, despised learning, and for many ages had no other records 
than the songs of their bards. 

The theology of the Scandinavians, was a proper index of their 
manners. One of their leading articles in religion, was to be intre- 
pid in fight. As, moreover, they believed the world to be the work 
of some superior intelligences, so they held that it was regulated 
and tixed by an unalterable destiny. These notions had a won- 
derful effect on the national manners, and on the conduct of in- 
dividuals. The Scandinavian had no other delight, than what war 
afforded ; he entertained an absolute contempt of danger and of 
death : and the larger the number of his enemies slain in battle, the 
more highly was he esteemed by others, and himself The solace of 
his departing spirit, was a recital of his acts of carnage. 

His God was Odin, a God clothed with every terror, and delighting 
in war, revenge and slaughter. From him and Frea, the heavenly 
mother, sprung various lesser divinities ; as Thor, who perpetually 
wars against Loke and his evil giants ; and the virgins of the Val- 
halla, whose office it is to minister to the departed heroes. The 
joys of paradise are fighting, perpetual carnage, and drinking beer 
out of the skulls of their enemies. Of these joys, the cowardly are 
never suffered to partake. 

There was a great similarity between the manners of the Scandi- 
navians, and those of the ancient Germans. The latter, however, 
seem to have sprung from a different origin. The Germans as well 
as the Gauls, were branches of the Celtae, a great original nation, 
who inhabited most of the countries of Europe, south of the Baltic, 
before they were invaded by the Scandinavian tribes. The religion 
of the Celtae, differed in some respects from that of their northern 
neighbours, though it was founded on the same principles. It was 

31 



362 GENERAL VIEWS. 

the Druidical system. They usually performed their devotions in 
sacred groves, woods or forests. Of their sacrifices, horses were ac- 
counted the most acceptable, but their altars, like those of most bar- 
barous nations, were sometimes sprinkled with human blood. 

The warriors of Scandinavia, upon their settlement in the provin- 
ces of the Roman empire, soon lost much of their native ferocity and 
barbarism. Sometime previously to this change in their condition, 
they had nominally embraced christianit}^, and their morality had 
become respectable. The Gothic conquerors of Rome, generally 
spared the noble works of art; and Theodoric the Great, at the head 
of the Gothic monarchy in Italy, was an excellent sovereign, mild, 
indulgent, prudent, and enlightened. Under this monarch, and even 
under Alaric, Amalasonte, and Totila, the Romans were treated with 
an indulgence which they could scarcely have expected. Their • 
government was monarchical ; at first elective, afterwards heredita- 
ry, in the sense that the sovereign on his death bed appointed his 
successor. 

(2.) A few things may be noticed as applicable to particu- 
lar tribes. There were some diversities of character and in- 
stitutions, that throw additional light on the genius and man- 
ners of modern civilized nations. 

§ The Goths, properly so called, appear to have been famed, even 
in the earliest ages, for their hospitality and kindness to strangers. 
They encouraged the study of philosophy, above all other barbarous 
nations: and Horace has bestowed some warm encomiums on the 
virtue of their women. Poligamy, however, was universally coun- 
tenanced among them ; and their martial disposition, induced them 
to commit many unwarrantable depredations on the territories of 
their neighbours. Their principal weapons consisted of bearded 
lances, and missile hatchets. Their government was monarchical. 

After the Goths, upon their conquest of the Roman empire, be- 
came divided into Ostrogoths and Visogoths, their policy somewliat 
varied. The former enforced, in their new dominions, the obser- 
vance of the Roman laws. The latter adhered to a code compiled 
by their own sovereigns, and founded on their ancient manners and 
usages. From this code may be gathered much information respect- 
ing their national character and genius. 

The following are a few particulars, imparting this information. 
" It is enacted by laws of the Visogoths, that no judge shall decide 
in any law suit, unless he finds in that book, a law applicable to the 
case. All causes that fall not under this description, are reserved 
for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but 
tempered with equity. No punishment can affect the heirs of the 
criminal. Death was the punishment of the murder of a freeman, 
and perpetual infamy of the murder of a slave. Pecuniary fines 
were enacted for various subordinate offences, according to their 
measures of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in bondage to 
the injured husband ; and the free woman who had committed adul- 
tery with a married man, became the slave of his wife. No physi- 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 363 

cian was allowed to visit a female patient, but in the presence of her 
nearest kindred. The lex taliationis was in great observance for 
such injuries as admitted of it." 

The Heruli appear to have had some laws peculiar to themselves; 
for among them, when persons had attained to a certain age, they 
were placed on a pile of wood, put to death, and their bodies re- 
duced to ashes. When a man died, his wife was obliged either to 
strangle herself on his tomb, or become an object of universal con- 
tempt ; and human sacrifices were frequently offered to appease the 
gods of tlie country. The generality of the people were distin- 
guished for courage, swiftness, and activity; but their manners were 
greatly corrupt, and every kind of impurity was practised without 
shame or control. Their government is said to liave been monar- 
chical ; but it appears that their kings possessed a very small share 
of authority, and differed but little, in any respect, from their 
subjects. 

The Huns, though not of Scandinavian origin, but from the 
vast deserts bordering on the north of China, were a hardy, warlike, 
and ferocious people, who at first subsisted entirely on roots or raw 
meat ; lived constantly exposed to the air in the woods, or among 
the excavations of the mountains; were accustomed even to eat 
and sleep on horseback; and professed the utmost contempt for 
raiment, houses, and other conveniences of life. They were desti- 
tute equally of religious and civil institutions, and abandoned them- 
selves without restraint to the gratification of their unruly passions. 
Hence we find them making frequent incursions into the Roman 
empire, in defiance of the most solemn oaths, and even occasionally 
turning their arms against their own countrymen fur a pecuniary 
reward. Their distinctive character and institutions were lost, after 
they were subdued by Charlemagne, and dispersed among other 
nations. 

Learning and the Arts. 

Sect. 1. The interesting topics embraced in this article 
may be treated synchronically, or according to certain eras. 
Including literature, science, philosophy, and the fine arts, 
such as painting, sculpture, and architecture, tliey are too 
numerous and extensive to be treated particularly according 
to the different states or nations, in so compendious a work as 
the present. The mere sketch here to be presented, will in- 
clude three eras. 1. From the close of the Augustan age 
to the destruction of the Western Roman empire, or the com- 
mencement of the dark ages. 2. From the commencement 
of the dark ages to the revival of learning in the 15th cen- 
tury. 3. From the revival of learning to the present time. 



364 * GENERAL VIEWS. 

§ The Augustan age of literature may be considered as extending 
a few years into the period assigned as the commencement of mo- 
dern history ; for Livy, Ovid, and Phaedrus lived and wrote till after 
the Christian era. 

2. In the First Era, we have to notice the gradual and 
very perceptible decay of literature, and polite learning. Im- 
mediately succeeding the Augustan age, there were many 
persons of superior erudition and intellectual powers, but 
whatever pertains to taste and elegant hterature, began 
visibly to decline. A pompous, affected, and false style 
of writing, soon prevailed in the room of the classic beau- 
ties of the age of Cicero, Yirgil, Horace, and TibuUus. 
No works so finished as those of these masters, were pro- 
duced after the Augustan age ; and though there w^ere 
writers whose endowments and genius Avere quite equal 
to those of the above named, yet their deficiency in taste, is 
too certainly indicated by luxuriance of ornament, and by 
continual efforts after brilliancy of thought and expression. 
In science and philosophy, the dechne is not so perceptible 
at first, as it was towards the middle or conclusion of the 
era. Perhaps at first, if there was any difference, science 
and philosophy were more indebted to some of the writers 
succeeding the Augustan age. than to any who flourished 
during that age. 

§ In poetry, Lucan, Juvenal, andeven Martial, have a native power, 
but little, if at all inferior to that of Virgil, Horace, or Ovid, how- 
ever they may fail as to purity of style compared with the latter. 
Yet in general, it must be allowed that the writers who figured 
in polite literature, during this era, were deficient both in art and 
genius, as is evident from the works of Statins, Siiius Italicus, and 
Valerius Flaccus. Affected obscurity, bombast, and new-coined 
words, are too heavy a tax for the few occasional felicities of repre- 
sentation found in these authors. 

In physical science, Pliny the Elder, was a great name ; in moral 
philosophy, Seneca and Marcus Antoninus, shine with a superior 
lustre. These writers, with Plutarch the biographer, and Tacitus 
the historian, and a few others, were men of great power, though 
the faults of their style are to be regretted. The Natural History 
of Pliny, is a most valuable repository of the knowledge at that time 
possessed, in physics, ceconomics, and the arts and sciences. 

3. The princes who succeeded Augustus, were no enemies 
to literature, and some of them were not only patrons of 
learning, but were learned themselves. They were, however, 
despots, and despots of a different stamp from Augustus. 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 365 

Generally, they favored a literature which harmonized with 
despotism ; and genius being indulged at the risk of life, was 
cramped within narrow bounds. Eloquence was abandoned 
to pedants. Sophists at length occupied the chair of phi- 
losophy. 

§ Towards the conclusion of this era, learning, taste, and genius, 
greatly declined. Very few of the later writers ol3served, or seemed 
to comprehend, the perfect models of the Augustan age. A small 
number of poets, as Ausonius, Prudentius, and Claudian, wrote 
elegant and harmonious verses, but they exhibited no commanding 
genius, and depicted no powerful passions. We look in vain in 
them for the happy invention and artificial conduct of an interest- 
ing fable, or a just and lively representation of the characters and 
situations of real life. Seldom do they contain any thing sublime 
or pathetic. A few philosophers, philologists, and historians, ap- 
peared between the age of Constantine and the destruction of the 
empire, but no names are peculiarly distinguished. We read of 
some great names as connected with the defence of Christianity, 
though the style of Avriting prevalent at that time, and especially 
among that class of authors, was very faulty. There were hardly 
any vestiges of the ancient classic taste, towards the close of the 
empire. 

4. Seminaries of learning, at Rome and in Italy, were first 
endowed from the public treasury by Yespasian. The prin- 
cipal school next to that of Rome, was at Milan. In Greece, 
the schools of Athens continued to flourish for a considerable 
time, and when the seat of the Roman empire was transfer- 
red to Constantinople, that city included, for more than a 
thousand years, most of the literature and books that existed. 
Previously to that time, and during the decline of the empire, 
the destruction of books was extended and increased, in the 
midst of the turbulence and rapine of the civil contests for 
the imperial throne. 

Until the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews had 
schools in Judea, particularly at Bethhoron Jerunia, and Ti- 
berias. In the schools of Egypt, the chief of which was 
Alexandria, were taught the Greek philosophy, mathematics, 
jurisprudence, medicine, magic, and astrology. 

§ The despotism, disorders, civil commotions, and unparalleled suf- 
ferings of the Roman people in the latter stages of their political ex- 
istence, together with the destruction of libraries and books, could 
not but prepare the way for the melancholy era which followed in 
regard to the debasement of the human intellect. 

It may be remarked, that the arts declined with literature and 
science — the cultivation of them being neglected amidst the troubles 

31* 



366 GENERAL VIEWS. 

of the times. The Romans, as they were never eminent in any of 
the arts dependant on design, employed Greek artists, for the most 
part. But httle encouragement was given to architecture, or to the 
labours of the chisel and pencil, in the latter periods of the empire. 
All things were tending towards a state of ignorance and barbarism 
among the nations. 

5. In the Second Era, which begins and ends with the 
dark ages, as they have been commonly called, we have to 
remark an extraordinary depression of the human mind 
during a long period. The time that intervened between the 
fall of the Western empire of Rome, and the era of the re- 
vival of learning, was nearly one thousand years, during 
which, the world presented a sad scene of ignorance, barbn 
rism, and misrule. There were, however, some intervals of 
light, as in the times of Al Raschid, when Arabian literature 
flourished, and of Henry II., when in England, Henry of 
Huntingdon, and some others, studied and wrote. At Con- 
stantinople, there was throughout the whole period, a degree 
of refinement and knowledge. The central portion of the 
era was the darkest, including the ninth, tenth and eleventh 
centuries. The classic authors ended with the former part 
of the era, as also the spoken Latin tongue. 

The civihzed nations bound up together in one mighty 
and unwieldy community, had been prepared by a variety of 
causes, for the catastrophe which awaited them. The nor- 
thern invaders did not originate ; at most, they only hastened 
tills catastrophe. As much of ignorance and ferocity as they 
}>rought with them, they became, upon their settlement in the 
south of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the native citizens 
themselves. Considering their previous habits and temper, 
tSiey did more than could have been expected, to preserve 
learning and the arts for a time, in the dominions which they 
conquered. Without the agency of the northern invaders, 
darkness and barbarism would have covered the world, so 
Jong as such abuses of human rights, and especially of the 
divine system of the Gospel, were suffered to exist. Still 
the conflict of arms, and the overturning of the empire, could 
not but have given a shock to learning and the arts. 

§ " In the revolution of ten centuries," says Gibbon, " not a single 
discovery was made to exalt the dignity, or promote the happiness 
of mankind. Not a single idea has been added to the speculative 
systems of antiquity. Not a single composition of history, philoso- 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 367 

phy or literature, has been saved from oblivion by the intrinsic 
beauties of style or sentiment, of original fancy, or even of suc- 
cessful imitation." " Of the writings of antiquity," says the same 
author, " many that existed in the twelfth century are now lost : the 
literature of the Greeks had almost centered in the metropolis ; and 
without computing the extent of our loss, we may drop a tear over 
the libraries that have perished in the triple fires of Constantinople." 

The ignorance and infelicities of the dark ages, cannot perhaps be 
easily overrated. Those times, compared with our own, enjoying as 
we do the meridian light of knowledge and religion, must have been 
indeed undesirable. But there is a side to the picture, which is not 
altogether cheerless. There were some bright and joyous scenes ; 
and the relish of life in certain portions of the community, must have 
been strong, if we may judge from the noble works of gothic archi- 
tecture which were then erected — from the convivialities of baronial 
halls — from the gayeties of chivalry — and from the inspiring strains 
of the troubadours. The love of a sort of intellectual display, was 
indeed mingled with grosser propensities. But this is the most 
favourable aspect of the dark ages. 

Christianity, properly understood, and exercising its due influence 
on the understanding and character, must be a warm friend of know- 
ledge and literature ; but the spurious Christianity believed and acted 
upon in the dark ages, was hostile to some of the noblest produc- 
tions of the human mind. The temples of the heathens, with the 
public libraries they contained, were the objects of vengeance and 
destruction. The classics were regarded as sinful books. In addition 
to these causes, the devastations of the northern conquerors, notAvith- 
standing the commendable moderation which characterized them 
generally — and the plunder of Milan, which, next to Rome, was the 
chief repository for books in Ital}^ — necessarily reduced the number 
of manuscripts, and so far injured the interests of learning. 

After the commencement of the sixth century, scarcely any 
writers or men of genius worthy of notice appeared. The scien- 
ces suffered great decay. Taste was fast extinguishing. A sort ot 
attention was paid to learning during these times, but with little or 
no effect. The common course of studies in all the schools was 
grammar, logic, rhetoric, music, aritlimetic, geometry, and astrono- 
my. The first three were called Trivium, or trifling studies : the 
last four Quadrivium or high studies. A vain and ideal philosophy 
had begun universally to infect the minds of men. 

When we come to the more palpable darkness of the present era, 
we find that literature, science, and taste, were words but little known 
and used. Many of the clergy, whose profession should have se- 
cured to them a competent degree of knowledge, did not under- 
stand the breviary, which they were obliged daily to recite ; some 
of them could scarcely read it. The human mind, in general, 
neglected, uncultivated, and depressed, sank in the most profound 
ignorance. Charlemagne, and after him Alfred the Great, by their 
superior genius, endeavoured to dispel this darkness, and to give 



368 GENERAL VIEWS. 

their subjects a short glimpse of light. But the ignorance of their 
respective times was too powerful for their efforts and institutions. 
The darkness returned and prevailed throughout Europe more or 
less, till about the middle of the fifteenth century. 

The scarcity of books in those times, and the nature of their 
subjects, as legends, lives of the saints, &c. evince the singular 
dearth of learning. What of learning was cultivated, was confined 
to a few ecclesiastics. The monks of those religious houses whose 
rules did not prohibit the reading of the classics, turned their atten- 
tion to procuring and copying manuscripts. Most of these indeed 
were worthless ; but truth obliges the historian to add, that some of 
the abbots, and even the monks, employed themselves in procuring 
or copying the choicest works of Greece and Rome. Cassiodorus, 
to use the words of Gibbon, " after passing thirty years in the 
honours of the world, was blessed witii an equal term of repose in 
the devout and studious solitude of Squillace." To this place, the 
monastery of Monte Cassio, in Calabria, he carried his own extensive 
library, which he greatly enlarged by manuscripts bought in various 
parts of Italy. His fondness for literature spread among the monks ; 
and he encouraged them to copy manuscripts. What he did there 
seems to have been imitated in the other monasteries of that part of 
Italy ; for fifty religious houses there are mentioned, which after- 
wards principally supplied the libraries of Rome, Venice, Florence, 
and Milan, with books. 

The only national exception to the profound ignorance of the 
middle portion of the dark ages, were the Arabians. That part of 
Europe which they held, viz. Spain, was much more enlightened 
than any of the other states. The caliph Al Raschid rendered 
Bagdad illustrious, by the successful cultivation of the arts and 
sciences. At the same time the Moors of Cordova emulated their 
brethren of the East in pursuing a similar course. The sciences to 
which the Arabians were devoted, were principally medicine, geo- 
metry, and astronomy. In the end of the 10th century, they intro- 
duced into Europe the use of figures instead of letters. 

The arts, like literature and science, were low in this era of igno- 
rance. This was the case even with the mechanic arts during 
much of the time. The fine arts, particularly sculpture and paint- 
ing, were preserved from absolute extinction, only by the existing 
remains of ancient art. Charlemagne, in his time, seems to have 
been solicitous for the improvement of music, and the Italians are 
said to have instructed his French performers in the art of playing 
on the organ. The musical gamut was invented in the 1 1th centu- 
ry. Architecture was cultivated in a style termed the Gothic, which, 
notwithstanding its barbarous proportions, possesses a beauty pecu- 
liar to itself. 

In the r2th century there was the dawn of literature in England 
under William of Malmsbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Henry of 
Huntingdon, Giraldus Cambrensis and others. It was, however, a 
transient dawn, and darkness again succeeded. The barbarism and 
subtleties of the schools triumphed over the better principles and 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 369 

the more correct taste which had begun to prevail. The great 
teachers and patterns of logic and scholastic divinity, were charac- 
terized by the high-sounding epithets of divine, angelical, irrefraga- 
ble, &c. The most eminent among these teachers, otherwise called 
schoolmen, were Lanfranc, Abelard, Petrus Lombardus, Thomas 
Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. Their great business seems to have 
been to make innumerable nice and metaphysical distinctions, 
founded neither in nature nor good sense, and to draw conclusions 
which had no moral end whatever. Their speculations were found- 
ed on the philosophy of Aristotle, and the folly lasted long after 
the light had shone on other departments of human investigation. 

6. In passing to the Third Era, which commences 
with the revival of learning during the 15th century, we 
notice a favourable change, though not at first strongly 
marked. It is difficult to fix upon the exact point where the 
darkness ended, and the light began. The transition was 
too gradual to admit of nice discrimination. Occasionally, 
a distinguished individual appeared towards the conclusion 
of the era of darkness, and some nations were in advance of 
others as to the cultivation of learning. In the middle of the 
13tli century, Roger Bacon arose ; and as Wicklifie at the 
distance of a century and a half from the Reformation has 
been called its "morning star," so may Bacon, preceding the 
revival of learning by nearly tlie same distance, be entitled 
to a similar distinction. He was the morning star of the 
restoration of letters in Europe. To his original genius and 
vast scholarship, the advancement of science in subsequent 
times is singularly indebted. His own age was too unen- 
lightened to appreciate his merits or to profit by his discove- 
ries. In the 14th century also, men of genius arose in Italy, 
who were devoted to classical learning and the cultivation of 
their native tongue. The works of Dante, Petrarch, and 
Boccacio have fixed the standard of the Italian language. 
In the same age also, flourished the Enghsh Chaucer and 
Gower,and the accomplished James I.of Scotland, all of whom, 
by tlieir learning, genius, and taste, were fitted to give a cha- 
racter to the time in which they lived. Spain also at this 
period began to emerge from ignorance and barbarism. 
Although on some accounts we might be tempted to fix on 
the 14th century as the era of the revival of learning, we 
are on other accounts led rather to fix on the period com- 
monly assigned, viz. the 15th century. 

A few nations only felt at this time the spirit which has 



370 GENERAL VIEWS. 

been described, and that to a very small extent. It wag, 
moreover, poetry only that then attamed a degree of splen- 
dour. There was but little advancement in general hterature 
and science. Miracles and fables were woven too much into 
the texture of history, though we find much curious inform- 
ation in the writings of Walsingham, Everard, Duysburg, 
and particularly Froissart. France and England, though 
they contained a few learned men, were in general extremely 
barbarous. Few books, and scarcely any classics, were found 
in either of these countries. During nearly a hundred years 
from the time of Petrarch, little advance was made ; but a 
concurrence of circumstances favorable to the developement 
of the human intellect, took place, which eventually altered 
the whole aspect of affairs. Every subsequent age has felt 
the effects which in the middle of the 15th century proceeded 
from a taste for classical learning, from the dispersion of the 
Greeks on the fall of Constantinople, and especially from the 
noble invention of the art of printing. These were the 
principal causes which renovated the intellect of Europe. 
General literature and the fine arts first felt their influence ; 
and after the dominion of Aristotle was broken by the great 
Sir Francis Bacon in the beginning of the 17th of century, 
discovery succeeded discovery, and the most astonishing 
eflfoits of genius were put forth in science and philosophy. 
Improvements in knowledge have been making ever since, 
till, at the present time, both Europe and America enjoy the 
clear and full light of an intellectual sun. 

Discoveries and Inventions. 

1. A passing notice only can be taken of the discoveries and 
inventions which have characterized modern ages, as a full and ade- 
quate account of them, would require volumes. Many of them are 
altogether new and original ; others are essential improvements of 
the works of antiquity. Those of a mechanical character, will claim 
principal attention in this place, since some that pertain to science 
and philosophy, are naturally included in the consideration of those 
subjects. Somewhat of a chronological order will be observed. The 
following are a few of the many inventions and discoveries that are 
presented in modern history. 

2. Corn Mills. In remote antiquity, corn was rather pounded 
than ground ; and the hand-mills of which we read in scripture, 
were probably not unlike the pestle and mortar still in use. Im- 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 371 

provemeiits were made in these machines, till, in process of time, 
shafts were added to them, and they were driven by cattle. The first 
mention of public water-mills which occurs in the Roman laws, dates 
in the year 398, A. C, when some enactments were made, which 
shew they were then considered as a new establishment. These 
mills were situated on the aqueducts which supplied Rome with water 
and as these were cut off when the city was besieged by the Goths, 
536, Belisarius, who commanded the garrison, caused boats to be 
moored in the Tyber, on which he erected mills, which were driven 
by the current. Hence the origin of tide mills. Wind-mills, which 
for a long time were so constructed, that they could work only when 
the wind was in one quarter, are not spoken of till the time of the 
first crusade. 

3. Clocks and Watches. — The art of constructing mechanical 
clocks was unknown to the ancients. It was not until late in the 
fifth century of the Roman era (293 B. C.) that the first sun-dial was 
introduced into Rome. At a later period, a machine was invented 
at Alexandria, termed a water-clock, which was simply a conical 
glass, with the scale marked on the sides ; and which, being per- 
forated at the base, denoted the hour, as the liquid, with which it 
was filled, subsided. To this may be traced the origin of the hour 
glass, still in use. 

The inventor of clocks moved by machinery, is not certainly known. 
Several names of the ninth century have been mentioned, but there 
is reason to believe that the origin of the present invention is not 
older than the eleventh century. About that time, clocks moved by 
weights and wheels, certainly began to be used in the monasteries 
of Europe. The writers of the thirteenth century, speak of them 
as being well known ; still they were for a long time confined to mo- 
nasteries. It was not till towards the close of the fifteenth century, 
that they began to be used in private houses ; and about the same 
time, mention is first made of watches. These were originally 
formed in the shape of an egg, or at least of an oval, and catgut 
supplied the place of a metal chain. The first watch is said to have 
been made in Germany. In England, watches appear not to have 
been in general use, until about the time of Queen Elizabeth. 

The invention of pendulum clocks, is due to the ingenuity of 
the seventeenth century, and the honour of the discovery is disputed 
between Galileo and Huygens. The most ancient, now existing in 
England, is that of Hampton Court palace, the date of which is 1540. 

4. Linen used as clothing'. — Although linen was known in an- 
cient times in the East, and was introduced into Rome in the second 
century, it was not used in Europe, in the form of a garment, till 
sometime in the third century. It was earlier adopted for the table 
than for the person. The emperor Alexander Severus, is said to have 
been the first European, who wore a linen shirt. But inasmuch as 
the web was usually interwoven with threads of gold, it was too 
rough to be much of a luxury. The manufacture of this article 
made but little progress in Europe, during the middle ages. It was 
confined both then, and for a long period afterwards, to private families, 



372 GENERAL VIEWS. 

among whom it was made for domestic use ; and its scarcity as an 
article of apparel, has been considered as one chief cause of that 
cutaneous disorder, formerly called leprosy. About the middle of 
the twelfth century, linen was so little known, that woollen shirts 
were generally worn in Milan ; and flannel, or rather linseywolsey, 
formed the usual underclothing of ladies. Linen was first imported 
into England from Flanders. 

5. Glass Windows. — The venerable Bede tells us, that artificers, 
skilled in making glass for windows, were first brought into England 
from the continent, in 674, and were employed in glazing the church 
of the monastery at Wearmouth. But the art was not generally 
practiced, and the luxury of such windows was slowly adopted, for 
it was not until a century after the Norman conquest (1160, or 1170) 
that they began to be used in private houses, and even then, few 
could support such a style of magnificence. The manufacture of 
glass was not commenced in England, until the middle of the six- 
teenth century. 

6. Glass Mirrors. — There is no positive evidence that glass mir- 
rors were known before the year 1279. At that time, an English 
Franciscan monk speaks of them, in a work on optics, but also men- 
tions that they were covered on the back with lead. It may be in- 
ferred that this invention cannot be much older, from the circum- 
stance that glass mirrors were scarce in France, even in the four- 
teenth century. Various methods were adopted to perfect the art, 
before that which is now in use. 

7. Mariner^s Compass. — The date of the invention of the mari- 
ner's compass, is near the commencement of the fourteenth century. 
Gioia, of Amalfi, in Naples, a celebrated mathematician, from his 
knowledge of the magnetic powers, was the author or improver ol 
this important contrivance. The polarity of the magnet had been 
known in Europe, as early as the thirteenth century, but the com- 
pass was not used in sailing, till the time of Gioia. It is said that 
the Chinese, as in several other inventions or discoveries, lay claim 
to a knowledge of the compass long before ; but we may well be in- 
credulous in regard to most of their pretensions of this sort, since 
they are so much in accordance with that vanity, which derives 
their national existence from ages long preceding the scriptural ac- 
count of the creation. By this discovery, the dominion of the sea 
lias been opened to man, and he is also put in full possession of the 
terrestrial globe, by being enabled to visit every part of it. The art 
of steering by this instrument, was gradually acquired. Sailors un- 
accustomed to quit sight of land, durst not launch out and commit^ 
themselves to unknown seas. The first appearance of a bolder spi-" ' 
rit may be dated from the voyages of the Spaniards to the Canary 
I^ands. 

8. Gunpowder. — It is said that the Chinese claim acquaintance with 
gunpowder from the remotest era of their history; but however 
that may be, it is certain, that several centuries of the Christian era 
had passed away before it was known in Europe. Some have 
thought that the knowledge of it was obtained in Europe through 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 373 

the Saracens, as early as tlie latter part of the seventh century ; but 
it has more generally been supposed, that Friar Bacon was the first 
European who possessed the secret of the composition of gunpow- 
der, and that he was the inventor. He certainly so far alludes to it 
lis to say, that from saltpetre and other ingredients, a fire may be 
made that shall burn at any distance. Bacon died in 1294. 

9. Fire-arms. — It is generally admitted that artillery was used by 
Edward III., at the battle of Crecy, 1346 ; and though Froissart 
does not mention the circumstance, we have the decisive testimony 
of Petrarch, that these guns were common before the year 134^. 
The invention of portable fire-arms would appear to have originated 
in Germany, from the old names by which the different kinds were 
distinguished. These names were either German, or immediately 
derived from that language. They were, however, too long and 
heavy at first to be conveniently fired from the hand alone. When 
used, they were placed on a prop, with a fork at the upper part, be- 
tween which the piece was fixed, by means of a hoop projecting 
from the stock. They were first used at the siege of Parma, in 1521 . 

The first muskets were discharged by means of a match applied 
with the hand ; but this was afterwards adjusted to acock for greater 
security and precision in shooting. There were other improve- 
ments, but flint locks do not seem to have entirely superseded the 
match-lock in the continental armies, until towards the close of the 
seventeenth century. The first gun-lock was invented in 1517. Tlie 
term fire-lock, was given to the invention, which is still in use, and it 
was applied to the gun itself, in order to distinguish it from that 
which was fired by a match-lock. 

10. Paper made of cotton or linen rags. — Letters were wi^itten, 
or ideas transmitted, on a variety of substances, previously to the 
time when the art of making paper from cotton or linen rags was 
discovered. Sometimes a hard and solid substance was used, as 
stone, metal, or wood. Of these, wood was the most generally used, 
in various forms and modes, which cannot be here described. The 
leaves of trees also were employed ; hence the meaning of leaf, as 
applied to a book. This mode of writing was superseded by the 
use of the bark of trees, liber, hence the Latin name for a book. 
Linen cloth also was employed by the Egyptians and Romans. 
Leather, or skins prepared in the present manner, seems to have been 
often used by the Jews, on which to write portions of the Bible. 
Skins of animals rudely prepared, was another material, which 
originated with the lonians. A more common material was parch- 
ment, which was a certain preparation of the skins of animals. 
Most of the ancient manuscripts now extant, are written on parch- 
ment. Papyrus was also celebrated as a substance for writing up- 
on ; hence the word paper is derived. This was a species of rush 
which the ancients procured exclusively on the banks of the Nile. The 
paper manufactured from the papyrus, was of an inferior quality, 
until the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. 

The time when the manufacture of this paper was lost or super- 
seded, is not known. It is generally supposed that few, if any, 

32 



374 GENERAL VIEWS 

manuscripts on papyrus are of a later date than the 8th or 9th cen- 
tury. About this period cotton paper was first made : according to 
some in Bucharia, according to others it had been known long before 
m China and Persia. There is no doubt, however, that the Arabs, 
having gained a knowledge of the process, established a manufactory 
in Ceuta, and afterwards in Spain, and thus introduced it into 
Europe about the 12th century. At first it was made of raw cotton ; 
then of old worn out cotton cloth. The use of cotton paper be- 
came general only in the 13th century; and about the middle of the 
14th it was almost entirely superseded by paper from linen, such 
as is at present made. 

11. The Art of Printing. — No evidence exists that moveable 
wooden types were ever used, except in the capital letters of some 
early printed books. It has indeed been contended that Lewis Cos- 
ter of Haarlem, invented and used them ; that he therefore was the 
original inventor of the art of printing. But it is now proved that 
this opinion is without foundation ; that wooden types were never 
used; and that the art of printing as at present practised, with 
moveable metal types, was discovered by John Guthenberg of 
Mayence, about the year 1438. 

Three years before this, Guthenberg entered into a partnership 
with three citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose a secret 
which would enrich them all. One of the partners dying, and 
some of the most important implements having been stolen from 
the work-shop, a lawsuit took place. In the course of this lawsuit, 
five witnesses, among whom was Guthenberg's confidential servant, 
proved that Guthenberg was the first who practised the art of print- 
ing with moveable types. The result was a dissolution of partner- 
ship. The whole proceedings on this trial are in existence, and 
have been published in the original German. 

Misfortune and pecuniary loss attended his efforts for a time. In 
1450 he entered into partnership at Mayence, with John Fust: 
this also was a failure. The art was so little perfected that in their 
early efforts, neither the printing was fair, nor the expense sup- 
portable. It is not certain whether during their partnership, they 
found out the art of casting characters in metal, which they had 
previously been obliged to cut with a knife ; or whether this great 
improvement was made by Schceffer, who assisted them at this time. 
The general opinion is, that Schoeffer is entitled to this honour. 
Guthenberg and Fust at length separated ; and in consequence of a 
lawsuit, the former was obliged to give up his apparatus to Fust. 

Guthenburg, however, was not discouraged, but established a new 
printing offiice, until 1465, when he obtained a situation, with a good 
salary, under the Elector Adolphus. In the mean time Fust, in 
conjunction with Schceffer, continued printing. Upon the taking 
of Mayence in 1457, the partners suffered much ; and their work- 
men dispersing themselves, this most wonderful art was thus spread 
over Europe. 

In regard to stereotype printing, Holland has a far more substan- 
tial claim to the merit of inventing that, than to the glory, through 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 375 

Coster, of originating the art of typography. Besides a quarto Bible, 
pubHshed in 1711, there exists a Dutch Bible stereotpyed in folio at 
the commencement of the 18th century. These are satisfactory 
proofs that stereotype printing was employed in Holland long before 
it was even known in France. In a note to No. 1316 of Barbier's 
catalogue, it is also recorded, that Johann Mueller, pastor of the 
German church at Leyden, had devised in 1701, a novel method 
of printing, which much resembles the process of stereotyping as 
now practised. This method consisted in composing the page in 
the usual manner, correcting it accurately, securing the type with 
iron ties, turning it over on its face, and then cementing it into a solid 
mass by means of a metallic composition, or preferably, of mastic. 

12. ^team Engine. — This grand machine, which has done so 
much for the human race, and is destined to do much more, was 
unknown to the ancients. Its powerful effects are the result of the 
scientific combinations by which the immense expansive force 
exerted by water, when converted into steam, is rendered available 
to the most important purposes. 

The original projector of the Steam Engine is generally believed 
to have been the marquis of Worcester in 1655 ; but his apparatus 
was intended to raise water by the expansive force of steam only. 
His project was neglected in his own age, nor does the subject ap- 
pear to have excited the attention of scientific persons, till the year 
1698, when Captain Savary obtained a patent for a new invention 
for raising water, and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill-work, 
by the impellent force of fire. Other improvements were attempted 
on the steam engine by Amonton, Papin, Blakey, Newcomen, and 
others ; but nothing essential was achieved except by the philoso- 
phical genius of Mr. Watt. Being accidentally employed to repair 
a model of the then imperfect steam engine, Mr. Watt observed that 
a great quantity of heat was lost by the unnecessary and improper 
mode of condensing the steam : he completely obviated the defect, 
and by the introduction of a condenser apart from the cylinder, and 
an alternate action of the steam against each side of the piston, he 
effected the most essential improvement in the above particular. 
Under his hands, however, the machine received other improve- 
ments, particularly in the mechanical arrangement throughout. 
Since the expiration of Watt's patent, a variety of other improve- 
ments have been made by several mechanical gentlemen, but details 
must be omitted. 

Steam engines are now common all over the world. Their ap- 
plication to the purposes of navigation forms an era in their history. 
The Americans first made this application, as the genius of Fulton, 
a native of Pennsylvania, was successfully employed on this subject, 
as early as the commencement of the present century. He first 
made the experiment of propelling boats by steam at Paris in 1803; 
after which he returned to America, and exhibited a boat in successful 
operation, on the waters of New-York. Vessels propelled by his 
machinery are now in common use, throughout the United States 
and in Europe. They are known also in India, and their num- 



376 



GENERAL VIEWS. 



ber is continually on the increase. In 1827, American steamboat 
tonnage alone amounted to 40,197 tons. It is now much greater. 

Incidents and Curious Particulars. 

1. Miscellaneous matter which cannot be conveniently arranged 
under any other head, is here designed to be presented. A few 
only of the vast mass of facts appropriate to this article, will be 
selected from the annals of different nations. From the present 
sample may be learned, among other things, the state of the useful 
arts, the modes of living, and the progress of society and improve- 
ment, at different periods. 

3. The most extensive and splendid of the libraries at Rome was 
the Ulpian, founded by Trajan. It is believed that at the suggestion 
of Pliny the younger, this emperor commanded all the books that 
were found in the conquered cities to be placed in this library. 
Most of the principal cities throughout the empire, at this time, had 
public libraries. The desolation of the western empire destroyed or 
dispersed most of the books in them, so that in this part of the 
world, after this period, and during the dark ages, monasteries 
almost exclusively possessed libraries. In the eastern empire it was 
different : both Constantinople and Alexandria preserved theirs, till 
the Turks obtained possession of these cities. 

3. From the origin of monasteries till the close of the 10th cen- 
tury, it is said there were no schools in Europe, except those belong- 
ing to monasteries, or episcopal churches. At the beginning of the 
11th century, they were opened in most of the cities of Italy and 
France, by qualified persons among both the laity and clergy. 
But though their general introduction and establishment, must be 
assigned to this period, yet it is certain that Charlemagne founded 
several in his dominion. Afterwards, or in the middle ages, there 
were distinct schools for clerks, for laymen, and for girls. But the 
education of the highest ranks seldom went beyond reading, wri- 
ting, and a little arithmetic. 

4. We learn from Seneca three curious circumstances relating to 
the journeys of the Romans. 1. They were preceded by a troop 
of Numidian light horse, who announced by a cloud of dust, the 
approach of a great man. 2. Their baggage-mules transported not 
only their precious vases, but even the fragile vessels of crystal and 
murra, which last has been almost proved by the learned, to mean 
the porcelain of China and Japan. 3. The beautiful faces of the 
young slaves were covered by a medicate crust or ointment, which 
secured them against the effect of the sun and frost. 

5. The use of braccte, breeches or trowsers, was considered in 
Italy in the 3d century as a Gallic and barbarian fashion. The 
Romans, however, had made great advances towards it. To encir- 
cle the legs and thighs with fasci^e or bands, was understood in the 
time of Pompey and Horace to be a proof of ill health and effemi- 
nacy. In the time of Trajan the custom was confined to the rich 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 377 

and luxurious* It was gradually adopted by the meanest of the 
people. 

6. After the age of Tiberius, the decay of agriculture was felt in 
Italy, and it was a just subject of complaint that the life of the 
Roman people depended on the accidents of the winds and waves. 

7. In regard to habitations, our English ancestors in early times 
had few luxuries or even conveniences. Down to the reign of 
Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns had 
no chimneys : the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke 
found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the 
windows. The houses were mostly built of watling, plastered over 
with clay ; the floors were of earth, strewed, in families of distinc- 
tion, with rushes; and the beds were only straw pallets, with a log 
of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better 
than his subjects, for in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions, 
" to examine every night the straw of the king's bed, that no dag- 
gers might be concealed therein." A writer in 1577, speaking of 
the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were 
" marvellously altered for the worse in England ;" the multitude of 
chimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange 
of treene platters into pewter, and wooden spoons into silver and 
tin, and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow was em- 
ployed for the building of houses. 

In the middle ages the fires in the houses were made in a cavity 
in the centre of the floor, over which there generally was an open- 
ing in the roof for the escape of the smoke ; and when the fire was 
out, or the family retired to rest, the place in which it was made 
was closed by a cover. In those days a law was almost universallj^ 
established on the continent, that fires should be extinguished, and 
the family be all at home, at a certain hour in the evening, which 
was notified by the ringing of a bell ; that, in England, was called 
the corfeu, curfew. 

8. In 1100, an inundation of the sea happened which overflowed 
the lands of Godwin, earl of Kent, called Godwin's Sands, to this 
day. Of these shoals the following account was given not many 
years since. " Upon our journey to Ramsgate," says Mr. Smeaton, 
civil engineer, " having visited the Godwin Sands, in order to ex- 
amine their nature, we found that though, like quicksand, they were 
clean and unconnected, yet they lay so close that it was diflScult to 
work a pointed iron bar into them more than to the depth of six or 
seven feet. 

9. The spirit of the middle ages is shown in the following instan- 
ces of wild magnificence or barbarity. On a certain occasion, 
when the nobility of Languedoc met in 1174, the countess of Urgel 
sent to the meeting a diadem, worth 2000Z., to be placed on the head 
of a wretched buflbon. The count of Thoulouse sent a diadem 
also of twice that value, to a favourite knight, who distributed the 
same amount in money among the poorer knights. Other acts of 
mad prodigality were performed, particularly the sowing of a piece 
of plowed ground with small coin to the amount of 1500 English 

32* 



378 GENERAL VIEWS. 

guineas, by count Bertrand Rimbault. But the barbarous wasteful- 
ness of lord Raymond was the most remarkable feat on the occasion. 
Having ordered thirty of his most beautiful and valuable horses to 
be tied to stakes, and surrounded with dry wood, he wantonly set 
it on fire, and suffered his favourites to perish in the flames. 

10. Among the Romans the interest of money was not fixed by 
law. It is on this account that we find in the Roman satirists so 
many loud complaints of extortion, and of the severity with 
which pecuniary claims were enforced. Horace describes a rich 
old miser, who 

" Dooms the wretches, on the appointed day, 
His interest or principal to pay." 

Many of the bankers acquired large fortunes, and arrived at the 
highest dignities of the state. Their establishments were of a pri- 
vate nature, and such banking houses are known to have existed in 
the chief cities of Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries ; and about 
the some period the first public banks appear to have been establish- 
ed by some of the Italian states, for the purposes of contracting 
loans and managing the collection of the revenue. The most an- 
cient general bank for the deposit of cash and the issue of its own 
paper in return, appears to have been formed in the city of Barce- 
lona, in 1401. 

11. The specious miracles of Arabian magic were introduced into 
Europe, by means of pilgrimages and the holy wars. Fairies and 
giants, flying dragons and enchanted palaces, were blended with the 
more simple fictions of the West ; and the fate of Britain depended 
on the art or predictions of Merlin. 

12. The magnificent castle of Windsor, was built by Edward III., 
in the fourteenth century, and his method of conducting the work, 
may serve as a specimen of the condition of the people in that age. 
No contracts were made with workmen as in the present times, but 
every county in England was assessed to send the king a certain 
number of masons, tilers, and carpenters, who were to perform their 
quota of labour. 

13. In the year 1414, the citizens of London were ordered to hang 
out lanterns to light the streets, and one of its mayors, in 1417, re- 
newing the order, " ordained lanthornes with lights to be hanged 
out on the winter evenings between hallontide and candlemasse." 
In this particular, London must have set the example to the other 
cities of Europe. During three centuries afterwards, the citizens 
were occasionally reminded of this regulation, under pains and 
penalties for its non-observance ; but the frequency of the repetition 
only proves, how ill it was obeyed. In 1716, it was directed that 
each liouse should have a lamp hung out on every night between 
the 2d after full-moon until the 7th after new moon, from the hour 
of six in the evening until eleven. In 1736 and 1739, the present 
mode of lighting was partially adopted, but it was not till 1744, that 
an act of parliament was passed for completely lighting the cities of 
London and Westminster. 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 379 

14. During the periods of feudal strife, when neighbouring chief- 
tains often made sudden inroads on each other, every baronial castle 
was provided with its warders, i. e. men that were posted on the 
tops of towers to watch the approach of an enemy. In Wales, these 
persons were furnished with horns to sound an alarm ; and those 
in the castles of the German princes, in the sixteenth century, blew 
a horn every morning and evening, on the reUeving and setting of 
the guard. 

15. Between the years, 1312 and 1315, Germany groaned under 
all the miseries of plague and famine, by which whole towns were 
depopulated, and provinces brought to desolation. The rich sought 
an asylum in other countries, while the poor, unpitied and unassist- 
ed, miserably perished. Hunger so preyed upon wolves and other 
ravenous beasts, that overcoming their fear of man, they rushed into 
the villages, and gorged themselves with human blood. Trees and 
houses were swept away by cataracts bursting from the mountains ; 
and the earth was dreadfully convulsed by earthquakes. 

16. It was not until towards the close of the sixteenth century, 
that potatoes made their appearance in Europe. They were first 
brought by Sir WaUer Raleigh, from America to Ireland. From 
thence they passed by slow degrees over to Scotland, and the nor- 
thern counties of England, and have since become general through- 
out Great Britain. The lapse, however, of two centuries has not 
sufficed to introduce so important a vegetable into common con- 
sumption, in the south of Europe. 

17. In the year 1500, there happened so great a plague in Eng- 
land, that it obliged the king and court to remove to Calais, and 
carried oflf upwards of 30,000 people in London. 

18. The progress of improvement has been slow in many res- 
pects. Many centuries of the christian era had passed away, before 
any thing better than splinters of wood, was used by our English 
ancestors for lighting their houses by night. It was not until 
towards the close of the thirteenth century, that tallow candles were 
employed for this purpose. It was not until this period that cups 
and saucers were used, and then they were considered as luxuries. 
A few centuries only have gone by since knives and forks were used 
in eating ; since hats were worn in lieu of cloth hoods and knit 
caps; since the ladies were accommodated with pins instead of 
skewers ; and since knit stockings were introduced in the room of 
cloth hose. 

19. In 1546, a law was made in England for fixing the interest of 
money at 10 per cent. This was the first legal interest known in 
that country. Strange as it may seem to us, all acts of that nature 
were formerly considered as usurious. 

20. Between the years 1660 and 1670, two awful calamities befel 
London— a plague which carried off 68,000 persons— and a fire, 
which, breaking out near London bridge, and continuing several 
days, destroyed eighty-nine churches and thu-teen thousand two 
hundred dwelling houses. 



^0 GENERAL VIEWS* 

21. A few years before the landing of the puritans at Plymouth, 
a remarkable pestilence destroyed most of the Indians from Nara- 
ganset to Penobscot, which seems to have been a providential oc- 
currence to facilitate the settlement of New-England. 

22. The waste lands in the united kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, amount even at this time to 15,301,994 acres. 

23. In the year 1828, American shipping in foreign trade amount- 
ed to 824,781 tons, and foreign shipping employed in American 
trade was 149,435 tons— the whole being 974,216 tons. The en- 
rolled coasting tonnage of the country is nearly or quite equal to 
that in foreign trade. 

24. In the year 1829, the public libraries in Europe were com- 
puted to contain 19,847,100 volumes. 

25. The expenses of Great Britain in war, since 1688 amount, as 
appears from a statement lately made, to £2,023,500,000, viz. — 

Years. Expense. 

The war of the Revolution, 9 £36,000,000 

Spanish Sucxiession, 11 62,500,000 

Spanish war, 1739, and > 1 " 

Austrian Succession, ^ 9 
The " Seven years war" with ^ 

the French, Spanish, Austri- \ 7 

ans and Russians, of 1756, } 

The American war, of 1775, 8 136,000,000 

French Revolution war, 9 464,000,000 
The war against Bonaparte, ) 

the three last years of which \ 12 1159,000,000 

with the United States, ) 
There were about sixty-five years of war, and seventy-five of 
peace, in a period of one hundred and forty years. 



Present state of several Nations in respect to Agriculture, 
Roads, Co7iveyances, IntercoursCj Education, Trade, 
Manufactures, ^c. 

\: The history of culture, in respect to many characteristics, were 
they to be traced from their origin, and described as they have ex- 
isted in past ages, would be interesting and instructive. Some sub- 
iects of this kind have been thus traced and described. It may an- 
swer the purpose of so succinct an outline, to present others to the 
reader, as we now find them, with little reference to the past. The 
articles above enumerated, may therefore come under review, in res- 
pect chiefly to the present times. They are properly characteris- 
tics of the age, or the history of it, so far as such particulars are 
concerned. 



PRESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. 381 

2. Agriculture. — Agriculture, as the foundation of the means of 
living, and as connected with the state of society, and with the civil 
and intellectual character of a people, deserves a high degree of at- 
tention. Accordingly, it has been a commanding object of pursuit, 
with all civilized communities, from the beginning-. I3ut it is only to 
be remarked here, that in modern times it has received more conside- 
ration than formerly. The ancient Romans, perhaps, were as much 
devoted to it as any modern nation ; and their agricultural wealth, 
as individuals, when, in some instances, several thousand yokes of 
oxen were the property of a single farmer, exceeds probably any 
thing known at present. But with the exception of the Romans, if 
they were on the whole an exception, modern nations manifestly ex- 
cel antiquity. Especially do they excel the middle ages, for then 
this great interest suffered, with every thing else, a lamentable decay. 
In very recent times, peculiar attention has been bestowed on the 
subject, both in Europe and America, by means of numerous agri- 
cultural societies. Indeed, science has been of late most successfully 
applied to the purposes of advancing the agricultural art. The bu- 
siness in the hands of scientific practical farmers, has assumed a sys- 
tematic arrangement, unknown in former days. 

3. Roads. — In Europe, as tlie Roman empire declined, the roads 
gradually fell into neglect ; and during the dark ages, their ruinous 
condition, rendered communication difficult, beyond what we can 
now find it easy to conceive. It is not readily ascertained what the 
state of the roads was, but they must have improved as trade in- 
creased. We know that the amelioration of them was slow ; that 
the arts of constructing and directing them, were for a long time un- 
derstood very imperfectly ; and that the first kingdom in which the 
condition of the great roads, at all approached the present standard 
of excellence, was Sweden, where from its want of wealth, and its 
remote situation, no such occurrence could reasonably have been 
looked for. 

In England, the change in regard to the arrival and departure of 
the mails, which took place in 1793, greatly forwarded that improve- 
ment of the principal roads, which had been going on through the 
eighteenth century ; and from 1793 to the present moment, the high- 
ways, cross-roads, bridges, and ferries, throughout the whole extent 
of that country, are decidedly superior to those which are to be seen 
any where else. 

A remarkable improvement, however, has recently taken place in 
roads and bridges, all over Europe. Materials for road making have 
been found where formerly they were not believed to exist, and the 
skill with which they are employed is surprising. Neither clay, 
sand, morasses, torrents, precipices, nor any other obstacles, are deem- 
ed insurmountable. A terrace has been conducted along the whole 
face of the Appennines, from Nice, to the gulf of Spezzia. The finest 
carriage roads cross the Alps, over mount Cenis, St. Bernard, the 
Simplon, St. Gothard, the Splugen, from the lake of Como to the 
source of the Inn, from Trent to Brixen, and where the road from 
Vienna to Venice crosses them at Ponteba. An entirely new road 



382 GENERAL VIEWS. 

has been formed in the kingdom of Netherlands, from Namur to Lux- 
embourg ; another runs along the banks of the Rhine from Mentz to 
Nimeguen 5 another from Hamburg to Hanover, and from Hanover 
to Deventer. Others have been formed, and particularly the vv'hole 
way between Berlin and Petersburgh, probably presents by this time 
an admirable hue of communication between these two capitals. 
Other roads are said to be under consideration, and particularly one 
from Berlin to Hamburg, through sands which appear almost impas- 
sable. Indeed, the traveller in Europe, since the cessation of wars, 
every where witnesses the utmost zeal in building bridges, in open- 
ing, widening, levelling, and repairing roads. 

Nor has less been done, or is less doing in the United States. Pro- 
bably no people in the same time, ever made so many improvements 
in roads and bridges. Where two hundred years ago, all was a wide 
wilderness, traversed only by the foot-paths of the Indians, there are 
now thousands of good roads. The extent only of post-roads in this 
country, now considerably exceeds 100,000 miles. In some parts of 
Europe and of the United States, rail-roads have been made, or are 
in progress, which promise the greatest advantages to commerce 
and inland transportation. The recent construction of carriages 
moved by steam, which are designed to pass over roads of this des- 
cription, will form an era in the history of travelling. Moving with 
the velocity of thirty miles or more by the hour, these vehicles will 
seem to annihilate space. 

4. Water Conveyance.— ^he progress lately made in water con- 
veyance, is also very remarkable. The first canals known in Europe, 
were those which were formed in Italy and the Low Countries, and 
served in several cases both to drain the ground, and for the convey- 
ance of merchandize. France followed their example, and by means 
of the canal of Languedoc, joined the channel and the Mediterra- 
nean. Several others have since been completed, and others are begun; 
but that country is never likely to place much dependence on its ca- 
nal communications. About the middle of the last century, the 
commercial prosperity of Great Britain, induced it to turn its attei^ 
tion to canals, and from its abundance of water, and the moderate 
elevation of its surface, it has now pushed canal navigation, beyond 
every other country. The total length of canals in Great Britain at 
the present time, is 2,600 miles. Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, now 
possess canals ; and Russia, both within her old limits and in Po- 
land, is zealously encouraging canals, to connect her rivers, and trans- 
port the produce of her soil. Next to Great Britain, the United 
States have displayed the most enterprise in the business of canals. 
In the several states, twenty-two canals are finished, in progress, or 
in immediate contemplation, whose aggregate length is about 2,500 
miles. The greater part of them are either finished or in progress. 
Two of them, viz. the Hudson and Erie, and the Chesapeake and 
Ohio canals, are each 360 miles, the Ohio state canal is 306, and the 
Pennsylvania canal is 296 miles. The Hudson and Erie canal, which 
is in operation, is the boast of the new world. 

The application of steam to shipping, which deserves to be ranked 



PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 383 

among the greatest discoveries, theoretical or practical, that were 
ever made, has done more within the last twenty years, to facilitate 
the communication between diiferent places, by water, than all the 
contrivances that went before it. Steam vessels are now found per- 
manently or occasionally plying from the bottom of the Mediterra- 
nean, all round to the top of the Baltic. No place in the eastern part 
of the world has derived so great advantage from the discovery of 
steam vessels, as England. Its situation, coal, and commerce, en- 
ables it to shoot forth these vessels in every direction, and by means 
of the certainty and celerity of their passage, they have diminished 
its distance, and multiplied its means of access to every part of the 
European continent. In the United States, where the application of 
steam to the purposes of navigation was first made, these vessels are 
most extensively employed. They abound, with all their facility of 
conveyance, on our coasts, and in our rivers ; hundreds of them are 
owned on the Mississippi alone. The combination of the above dis- 
coveries and improved arrangements, has produced an ease, certain- 
ty, and rapidity of intercourse, exceeding all past experience or ima- 
gination. 

5. Travelling. The increase of the number of travellers which 
these facilities have caused, is a characteristic of the times worth no- 
ticing. Travelling for improvement or gratification, has increased 
fifty or an hundred fold, and it is continually augmenting. In peace, 
Europe is now one great family, and certainly many advantages at- 
tend this state of things. Such a degree of travelling and inter- 
course tends very much to bind nations together, and to promote 
liberal views, and a charitable feeling, one towards another. Some 
good things, however, are sacrificed to it. Simplicity of heart, and 
the earnestness of kindness in domestic life, are diminishing. The 
love of home, the warm gush of affection, is'checked. The bonds of 
society now set loosely on a man. Attachment to country ceases to 
operate as it once did. 

6. Increase of Education. Another characteristic of the present 
times, is the extraordinary increase of education. A much larger 
portion of the people of civilized countries read than formerly. Pro- 
testants have always been more devoted to reading than the Catho- 
lics. Except in Spain and Portugal, reading has increased every 
where. Both the means and the habits of reading are increased. 
The multiplication of newspapers and periodical publications— the 
number of booksellers' shops— the profusion of literary institutions 
and circulating libraries, are infallible indications of the extraordi- 
nary spread of education and reading. There is evidently, there- 
fore, the more need of moral discipline. The Bible should by all 
means be made a study, and its heavenly truths should be more than 
ever enforced upon the heart. The cheapness of books, the number 
of teachers, the spare time created by the extension of machinery, 
and the fashion for reading, have operated very considerably on the 
common people in Europe. In the United States, the same causes 
have operated on the same portion of the community, though here 



384 GENERAL VIEWS. 

the common people have always been distinguished, above those of 
other nations, for a love of reading and a competent education. 

Among the higher orders of European society, there are so many 
books, and so much to learn, that few are profound. The stream ol 
knowledge flows wider, but has not become deeper. To master all 
the branches of science and knowledge, is impossible. Daily and 
periodical publications abound, but perhaps too much so for a sound 
and permanent literature. They include the principal stock of read- 
ing, except novels, books of travels, and memoirs. The mind of the 
public cannot be more effectually abused and unsettled, than by the 
systematic conversion of history, private life, religion and morality, 
into themes for works of fiction ; and the full extent of the miscliief 
will be seen only when it is too late. A similar change to that which 
has taken place among readers, has affected authors. Most of this 
class are so impatient to reap the rewards of their labours, or so ap- 
prehensive of being supplanted by competitors for the public favour, 
that few are willing to bestow the time and trouble which are ne- 
cessary for the composition of a standard work. 

7. Improvement in external condition. — In the present state of 
most civilized nations, a surprising improvement has taken place 
in the outward condition of all ranks of society. Many shocking 
and painful disorders have almost wholly disappeared, and others, 
which flesh must still be heir to, have by superior treatment, been 
rendered less violent and dangerous. The small pox, the ravages of 
which were once so terrible, has now ceased to alarm the communi- 
ty. The discovery of vaccination, in 1798, by Dr. Jenner, was the 
instrumental cause of so propitious a change. This is one of the 
diseases referred to ; others might be named. The plague, except 
in Turkey, and some other countries borderi'ng on the Mediterra- 
nean, is almost unknown. Famines, arising either from cold or heat, 
are now of much less frequent occurrence than they formerly were, 
and the cruelties and calamities of war, have been mitigated. WTiile 
these scourges of mankind have been removed or diminished, the 
length of human life has been extended, as a consequence. A greater 
proportion live to old age than was the fact a century ago. Other 
causes, however, may have operated here, as greater temperance, 
better food and clothing, less exposure, &c. Connected with the 
above, inventions of every sort, conducing to personal enjoyment, 
have been multiplied or brought to perfection. In houses, furniture, 
horses, conveyances, and every thing which can minister to the ease 
and gratification of mind or body ; in the number and refinement of 
the sources of amusement, and in all articles of domestic luxury and 
convenience, the progress that has lately been made, is unprecedent- 
ed either for extent or rapidity. There is not a district to be foimd 
in any European state, in which the traveller is not struck with the 
taste and magnificence displayed in the architecture of public and 
private buildings, the multiplication and commodiousness of bathing 
and watering places, hotels, coffee houses, and reading rooms, the ex- 
quisite arrangement of gardens, grounds and villas, and the neatness 
of cottages, shops and manufactories. 



t>RESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. 385 

This alteration is very conspicuous in England. The comforts of 
life appear in great profusion ; no native or foreigner can travel fifty 
or sixty miles, along a public road, without being lost in wonder and 
astonishment. Towns, villages, hamlets, mansions, farm houses, and 
cottages, are every where scattered about in the most pleasing and 
romantic situations. It were to be desired that the reality in every 
respect, corresponded with the appearances, but it is not to be con- 
cealed that the present stagnation in business, has thrown many of 
the English operatives into- distress. In the United States, however, 
these improvements not only abound, but the favourable appearan- 
ces are generally connected with a more deliglitful reality. 

8. Increase of population. — In consequence of the improvement 
in the physical circumstances of the people in christian countries, 
tlie population has increased in an unexampled manner. Some pla- 
ces, owing to political revolutions, or change of trade, may have de- 
creased in population, as Rome, Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Verona, 
Seville, Barcelona, Cadiz, Lubec, Bremen, Ghent, Bruges, Cologne, 
Strasburg, Nuremburg, and Augsburg. These, however, are excep- 
tions to the general rule. Petersburg, Berlin, Vienna, Brussels, 
Paris, Hamburgh, Frankfort, Milan, Munich, Stuttgard, Stockholm, 
and the territories to which they belong, are swelling in extent and 
population. England has outstripped the continent within these last 
thirty or forty years. London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, 
Birmingham, and many other cities and towns in Great Britain, have 
experienced a great increase. According to statistics, which have 
lately appeared,* it is found that the inhabitants of Europe have, 
within the period that has elapsed since the general peace, in 1815, 
been augmented by the number of 28 or 29,000,000. Every coun- 
try has had a share in this increase. Europe, however, can hardly 
be compared with the United States, in this particular. Within the 
time above mentioned, the population of this country has increased 
to the amount of at least one third of the whole number. History 
probably does not furnish another instance of tlie rapid rise of cities, 
equal to that of New- York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New-Orleans, 
and several others. 

9. The approximation of the lower classes to the higher. — This 
Is a characteristic of the age more particularly observable in the old 
world. In America, owing to its institutions, and the abundance 
of the means of living, the difference in the classes of the people has 
never been so wide as it is in Europe. The approximation spoken 
of is very perceptible in European society. It is obvious in dress, 
manners, and acquirements. It is encouraged by the improvement 
which has taken place in manufactures, and by the substitution of 
machinery for manual labour. Dress is scarcely a test of rank. In 
language and address, the middling classes have advanced. There 
are few above the lowest rank, if possessed of good sense, who do 
not speak and act, in these days, with ease and propriety. Much 
taste and elegance, are in many instances displayed. In mental ac- 

* The American Almanac for 1830, a most valuable production. 
33 



386 GENERAL VIEWS. 

quirements, particularly, the assimilation is visible. Children of the 
nobility, from the greater pains taken with them, excel at first, but 
are outstripped afterwards, by those who feel the necessity of excel- 
ling. The procession in society, has extended to attainments of every 
kind, especially in matters of legislation. The numerous papers 
and documents which are published, and which are accessible to 
most readers, have contributed to this result. In regard to Great 
Britain, an American gentleman long resident m that country, at 
this moment writes, " A spirit is silently at work, which is gradu- 
ally undermining the power of the Aristocracy, and will one day 
(and that not far distant) show itself in a form too powerful to be 
resisted." 

10. Trades and Manvfadures.— The spring of late years given 
to trade and manufactures, is quite characteristic of the times. Our 
remarks have reference more especially to the continental portion of 
Europe, wiiere, since the general peace, the products of manufactu- 
ring industry have been wonderfully multiplied. 

Sugar refineries have w^itliin a recent period been established to a 
great extent, at Trieste, Petersburg, Hamburg, and Gothenburg. At 
Motala, near Orebro, in Sweden, there is perhaps the largest esta- 
blishment in existence for all sorts of implements in steel and iron. 
The manufacture of muskets and fowling-pieces has lately been 
greatly improved in Germany, and particularly at Herschfeld, in 
Hanover. Admirable travelling carriages of all sorts, both in point 
of elegance and durability, are built at Brussels, Berlin, and Vien- 
na. The glass manufactories in France, at St. Quentin, St. Gabin, 
Comenty, and Premontre, in the department of Aisne, are all in the 
most flourishing condition, and glass is made at Munich, of a most 
superior quality, so that the Bavarians have deprived even the- Bri- 
tish of the manufacture of telescopes. The elegant iron and steel 
ornaments, made at Berlin, have now become a valuable and extend- 
ing branch of commerce. The utmost attention is paid to the im- 
provement of wool throughout France, Austria, Saxony, Holstein, 
and some other parts of Denmark. The woollen manufactures es- 
tablished in Moravia, Saxony, and Silesia, and in the Low Coun- 
tries, are increasing, and in addition to those which have been long 
seated at Sedan, Elboeuf, and Louviers, in France, they have now 
been introduced at Carcassone, Castres, and Lodeve, in the south, 
and at Bourges, and Chatevuroux, in the centre. A determined and 
successful degree of anxiety to improve the breed of horses, has 
manifested itself in Prussia, Russia, and France. England no long- 
er supplies nearly the whole of Europe with lead ; a great quantity 
is now raised near Almeria, in Spain. The manufactories of iron, 
and steel, which are flourishing in France, are prospering still more 
at Liege, which has become the Birmingham of the Low Countries, 
as Ghent is their Manchester and Glasgow. The cotton manufac 
tures of France and Belgium, have increased tenfold in ten years. 
They are now firmly fixed at Elberfeld, near J)usseldorf, and rapid- 
ly extending themselves in the Prussian Rhenish provinces. The 
silk trade of France, which used to be confined to Lyons, has now 



PRESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. 387 

spread its ramifications to Avignon, Nismes, and Tours, and its an- 
nual value amounts to £6,000,000. The silk trade is carried on in 
Switzerland, a fact which is little known abroad. There is in Zu- 
rich and its neighbourhood alone between 12 and 13,000 looms. It 
is also established at Aran, Basle, and several other places. In the 
Prussian Rhenish provinces, it is spreading from Mentz through all 
the towns and villages along the Rhine, and is carried on to a great 
extent at Dusseldorf and Elberfelt, but particularly at Creveld, where 
it is conducted with great capital and great spirit. All sorts of house- 
hold furniture are now made extremely beautiful in most large towns 
throughout the continent. Exhibitions of works of genius and in- 
dustry are every where encouraged, especially at Petersburg, Berlin, 
Brussels, Paris, Munich, Stuttgard, and Vienna. 

The manufacturing industry and talent of Great Britain, and the 
trade therewith connected, have been long celebrated, and have 
grown with her growth, till she has filled the world with the choicest 
works of mechanic art. But particulars will not be needed in re- 
gard to a country so well known. In the United States, also, trade 
and manufactures have of late risen in a remarkable degree, consi- 
dering the comparative newness of the country. Many new branches 
have been established, and many old ones enlarged, so that although 
we are essentially an agricultural people, and must remain so for a 
long time to come, we already produce a great variety of important 
articles of mechanical skill. The ingenuity and enterprise of our 
citizens are here, as in every other department of human effort, alike 
conspicuous and successful. 

11. Reform in Government. — A desire among many nations 
to free themselves from their oppressions, or to new model their go- 
vernments, is a prominent characteristic of the age. It has been ob- 
served in the course of this work, that the present period, though 
by the contemporary world which lived in it called the revolutionary, 
will probably be denominated the constitutional period by posterity. 
The nations for some time have been struggling to obtain free and 
regular constitutions. The spirit began with the United States, more 
than fifty years ago. France afterwards made a misguided, abortive 
attempt, and some other despotisms have been considerably agita- 
ted. The strict despotic principles have hitherto prevailed, except in 
the colonial establishments ; yet even in countries governed on those 
principles, such has been the influence of popular feeling, there has 
been a degree of amelioration. The attempts of the Spaniards, Por- 
tuguese, and Neapolitans, to change their forms of government, have 
been frustrated chiefly by the despotic sword from abroad ; but it is 
evident, that knowledge is increasing, and that the minds of men are 
turning with fond desire towards their long lost rights and liberties, 
and that a spirit is at work, which promises eventually the destruc- 
tion of all despotic thrones. The colonial struggles, however, have 
been successful, and the various republics of South America, and 
that of Mexico, in North America, attest the energy of that feeling 
which resolves on independence. Greece, too, favoured by circum- 
stances, and by the sympathies of nations, but more by her own he- 



388 GENERAL VIEWS. 

roism and self-denial, is an arm broken off from the Turkish powery 
and with the lingering remains of genius found in her, and quicken- 
ed into life by the principles and systems of American education, is 
destined, we may hope, to be twice immortal. 

12. Religious Enterprises. — The present era is greatly distin- 
guished by a spirit of enterprise in religion. Many, in protestant 
countries, are especially waked up in regard to the precious interests 
of the Christian church — its prosperity at home, and its extension 
abroad. Great reformations have taken place, and signal revivals of 
piety have abounded, especially in the United States ; and both here, 
and in Great Britain, the work of Christian missions has been vigo- 
rously prosecuted. Vast numbers of associations are formed in va- 
rious parts of Protestant Christendom, to give the Bible to the des- 
titute — to educate pious, indigent youth for the ministry — to imbue 
the minds of children with scriptural knowledge by means of sab- 
bath school instruction— to promote religion and morality among 
sailors — to enlighten the inmates of dungeons — and in this country^ 
especially, to secure the observation of the sabbath — to do away the 
abominations of intemperance ; and to benefit the descendants of 
Africa, by colonizing them in the land of their fathers. The esta- 
blishment and support of missionary seminaries, and theological se- 
minaries, are also among the important religious enterprises of the 
day. Indeed, there is scarcely a conceivable form of benevolent and 
pious movement which does not receive a portion of regard from 
the Christian public. 



The Christian Church. 

We shall attempt a very brief history of the Church of Jesus 
Christ, or of Christianity as a divine establishment common to most 
of the nations, whose affairs have been narrated in a different portion 
of this work. This is the only religious system that claims much of 
our attention, in modern annals. A sufficient notice has been taken 
of the religion promulgated by Mahomet, in the history of the Sara- 
cens. As to the religion of paganism, we have had so little occasion 
to bring into view the nations, who, in modern times, possess the 
pagan creed, that we need not trace its distinctive features. A few, 
however, of the religious notions of the barbarous heathen tribes, 
whence sprang the modern European states, have appeared in a des- 
cription of the manners, institutions, &c. of those tribes. The reli- 
gion of the Greeks, Romans, and other early nations, all of whom, 
except the Jews, were pagans, is a topic of Ancient History. 

1. It will suffice for the object here contemplated, to sketch 
the affairs of the Christian Church under three distinct heads. 
1. In its primitive and pure state, extending- from the birth 
of Jesus Christ, to the year 325 A. C, when Christianity 
became the rehgion of the Roman empire. 2. In its cor- 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



389 



mpted state, extending from 325 A. C. to the commencement 
of the Reformation, 1517 A. C. 3. In its reformed state, 
extending from 1517 A. C. to the present time. 

2. In the first era, as it might be expected, we behold the 
Christian church in its best condition. Compared with the 
subsequent era, it was distinguished for the simphcity of its 
order, purity of practice, and attachment to the doctrines of 
the Gospel."^ Among the many events of the present period, 
we can notice only the following leading ones, viz., the ap- 
pearance of Jesus Christ on earth ; the general success of the 
Gospel under the preaching of the apostles and others ; and 
the ten great persecutions of the Church, so enumerated and 
called, beginning with Nero, and ending with Diocletian. 

5 The appearance of Jesus Christ on earth was the most re- 
markable event that ever occurred. Its date, as commonly given, is 
four years later than the real time. The prophets had pomted out 
the period, and the world was in an unusual degree prepared for the 
coming of the Son of God. But though the nations were expectmg 
the appearance of some extraordinary personage, and the Jews par- 
ticularly were waiting for their Messiah ; yet Jesus was almost uni- 
versally rejected, both by the Jew and Gentile. In the circumstan- 
ces of his birth and life, and in the doctrines which he taught, the 
expectations of his countrymen were disappointed, and upon a fri- 
volous pretence, they put him to the cruel death of the cross. By 
tliis procedure, so unjust on the part of the Jews, the divine plan, 
which sought the redemption of the nations, was accomplished, for 
on the third day, Jesus rose from the dead, and forty days after, 
having given his disciples suitable instructions respecting their duty 
as pre'achers of his religion, he ascended to heaven, a cloud receiving 
him out of their sight. 

The ^ejieral success of the Gospel under the preaching- of the 
apostles and others, was also a remarkable circumstance, and strong- 
ly confirmed the truth of Christianity. Many reasons might be 
given for this opinion, but our limits forbid. In regard to the fact of 
the early and general extension of the Gospel, we are left to no 
doubt, from the nature of the case, and from historic records. The 
apostles and evangelists were early spread abroad among the na- 
tions ; and even before the destruction of Jerusalem, the Gospel had 
been preached to multitudes in several parts of the known world. 
\\ ithin thirty years of the death of Christ, says Paley, the institution 
had spread itself through Judea, Galilee, and Samaria, almost all 
tlie numerous districts of Lesser Asia, through Greece and the islands 
of the iEgean Sea, the sea coast of Africa, and had extended itself 
to Rome, and into Italy. At Antioch in Syria, at Joppa, Ephesus, 
Corinth, and many other places, the converts were spoken of as nu- 
merous. The first epistle of Peter, accosts the Christians dispersed 
throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappaclocia, Asia, and Bythinia. In a 

33* 



390 GENERAL VIEWS. 

short time, nations and cities more remote, heard of the Gospel. 
The Gauls received the knowledge of Christianity from the imme- 
diate successors of the apostles ; and during the second century, the 
Germans, the Spaniards, and probably the Britons, were converted 
to the true religion. 

The ten great 'persecutions of the Church have given a charac- 
ter to the whole era. They were not, however, in every instance, 
general through the Roman empire. Persecutions indeed existed 
from the beginning, and there were not many periods of entire tran- 
quillity to the Church, during three hundred years. But those of a 
more marked chaj'acter, are included within the above expressed 
number. Their order is as follows : 

1. The persecution under Nero occurred thirty-one years after 
our Lord's ascension. When the emperor set fire to the city of 
Rome, he threw the odium of that execrable action on the Christians, 
and made it the pretext of persecuting them. Accordingly, they 
were hunted like wild beasts, and torn to pieces by devouring dogs, 
and in innumerable other ways, were vexed, tortured, and put to 
death. 

2. The persecution which Domitian instigated, took place in the 
year 95. It is computed that 40,000 persons suffered martyrdom at 
that time. 

3. The persecution which existed in the reign of Trajan, began 
in the year 100, and was carried on with great violence for several 
years. 

4. The persecution which was permitted by Antoninus, commen- 
ced in the year 177. Many indignities, deprivations and sufferings 
were inflicted on the Christians in this persecution. 

5. The persecution under Severus, began in the year 197. Great 
cruelties were committed at this time against the patient followers 
of Christ. 

6. The persecution which Maximinus ordered, began in 235. It 
was the more severe to the sufferers from the indulgence they had 
enjoyed under the reign of his predecessor, Alexander Severus. 

7. The persecution under Deciiis, began in 250. It was the most 
dreadful hitherto known. The Christians were in all places driven 
from their habitations, stripped of their estates, tormented with 
racks, &c. 

8. The date of the persecution under Valerian, is 257. Both men 
and women suffered death, some by scourging, some by the sword, 
and some by fire. 

9. The persecution by Aurelian, was in 274. But this was incon- 
siderable compared with the others before mentioned. 

10. The persecution in which Diocletian was concerned, com- 
ijienced in 295. This was a terrible persecution. It is related that 
17,000 were slain in one montii's time. The enemies of Christianity 
had the presumption to think " that the name and superstition of the 
Christians" had been effaced from the empire. The period, however, 
was just at hand, (a salutary lesson to persecutors,) when this holy 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 39t 

faith was to rise on the ruins of all the former religions of the Ro- 
man people. 

During these persecutions, Christians multiplied, and Christianity 
became a principle of life and power to the hearts of its votaries. 
So long as their profession of religion was attended with danger — so 
long as they had the prospect of the dungeon, the rack, or the fag- 
got, their lives were pure and heavenly. The gospel was their only 
source of consolation, and they found it in every respect sufficient 
for all their wants. Affected with mutual sufferings, they sympa- 
thised most tenderly with each other, and their Lord's new command 
of brotherly love, was never fulfilled in a more exemplary manner. 

3. The Church, at the commencement of the second era, 
was externally prosperous and flourishing. The storm oif 
pagan persecution had ceased, and Christianity was support- 
ed by the Roman government. Under Constantine the Great, 
that government (which had long included the Umits of the 
civihzed world) changed from a persecuting to a protecting 
power. But its love was more fatal to the real interests of 
the Church than its hate. Evils soon began to arise within, 
produced or aided by the aggrandizement it received without, 
which eventually reduced the Church to the lowest state of 
spiritual weakness and degradation. Worldly prosperity pro- 
duced pride, ambition, emulation, luxury, and many other 
vices equally opposed to the spirit of the gospel. The mix- 
ture of pagan philosophy and superstition exceedingly de- 
based the purity of religion, and the general ignorance which 
prevailed during the dark ages, rendered ineffectual its hea- 
venly truths. 

Among the more important particulars constituting this 
state of thin GTS, or affording proof of the disorders of the 
church and the consequent degeneracy of the people through 
this long period, may be named the Arian and Pelagian 
heiesies, the institution of monkery, image worsliip, the 
establishment of the papal supremacy, the passion for rehcs 
and pilgrimages, the separation between the eastern and 
western churches, the crusades, sale of absolution and indul- 
gences, the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses, the 
inquisition, the great western schism, the bulls and interdicts 
of the popes, and the contention of scholastic divines. 

§ These and several others are interesting objects of attention in 
this portion of the church's history , but except so far as a few of 
them have been already treated of separately, recourse for informa- 
tion must be had to more extended accounts. 



392 GENERAL VIEWS. 

4. Towards the commencement of the third era, the re- 
ligious state of the world was deplorable. All Christendom 
was held in bondage to the papal power. Corruption, both 
in doctrine and practice, prevailed to an extent before un- 
known. The Reformation of religion, which is the distinc- 
tion of the present era, was therefore greatly needed ; and we 
have the satisfaction of exhibiting the christian church under 
the influence of so propitious a change. The greater part of 
this body adhered to the papacy, and perhaps still adheres to 
it ; but though the whole of Christendom did not participate 
in the reformation, the whole may have derived benefit from 
it indirectly. The reformed, which is also called the protes- 
tant* faith, spread rapidly at the beginning, and even now, 
from the increase of the population in nations embracing this 
faith, as well as from efforts made to diffuse it abroad, it is 
favourably extending its influence. 

The date of the great event of which we speak, is 1517, 
and the instrumental agent whom Providence employed in 
bringing it to pass, was Martin Luther. The immediate oc- 
casion of the reformation was the sale of indulgences, which 
had been authorized by Leo X., in order to furnish the means 
of gratifying his taste or extravagances. This traffic having 
been intrusted to the care of one John Tetzel, an insolent 
and dishonest wretch, attracted the notice of Martin Luther. 
His indignation was first excited by the base manner in 
which it was carried on ; but from noticing the mode, he was 
led to inquire into the thing itself, and his eyes were soon 
opened to the enormity of the principle which it involved, 
and the nefarious character of the whole system. From this 
period his opinions were openly and boldly expressed, on the 
various errors which he found prevailing in the Church, and 
many were convinced on the subject by his preaching and 
writings. Hence the memorable rupture and revolution which 
took place — the blessed effects of which have been more and 
more felt from that age to the present. 

§ During his life time the benevolent labours of Luther were bless- 
ed in no small degree, and around him gathered a host of able and 

* So called from the protest which the elector of Saxony and other princes, 
entered against a decree of the diet at Spires, in 1529, by which every depar- 
ture from the Catholic faith and discipUne was forbidden, till a general council 
should be assembled. 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 393 

g^dly men, who proved to be, in many instances, the most efficient 
coadjutors. Among these were Carolsladt, Melancthon, Zninghus, 
Bucer, Oecolampadius, Martyr, Calvin, and Beza. Several of the 
princes of Germany were his patrons, and afforded him the most 
essential aid, among whom especially were Frederick the Wise, and 
John his brother, electors of Saxony. 

The new opinions were not long confined to Germany. Tlirough 
the oppressive measm'es of the papacy, as much as by any other 
cause, they were diffused abroad among the neighbouring nations. 
Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland, participated in the reformar 
tion, and it found many friends in France, the Netherlands, Spain, 
Hungary, and Bohemia. In England, also, it was firmly establish- 
ed, though by an instrumentality at first very different from friend- 
ship to the cause. The passions and obstinacy of Henry VHL, as 
has elsewhere appeared, were, by the providence of God, concerned 
in effecting the religious revolution in that country. In Scotland 
the denunciations of Knox demolished the papal hierarchy. 

The opposition of the Catholic power to the reformation, pro- 
duced in Germany much bloodshed, desolation, and discord. These 
scenes continued till the year 1555, when a treaty was formed at 
Augsburg, called the Peace of Religion, which established the Re- 
formation, inasmuch as it secured to all the inhabitants of Germany 
the free exercise of their religion. The protestant princes of that 
country never at any time ceased their exertions, till this desirable 
result was brought to pass. 

5. A few years after the establishment of the reformation, 
the countries of Europe which favoured it and became pro- 
testant, were Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, England^ 
Scotland,' Ireland, and Holland. One half of Germany, and 
a small majority in Switzerland, embraced the reformation. 
Tiie countries which adhered to Rome were Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, the Belgic Provinces under tlie Spanish yoke, 
France became decidedly papal, though at first the hope was 
entertained that she would favour the protestant cause. A 
goodly number, however, of the French population w^ere 
protestants. 

That portion of the professed Christian body which con- 
stituted the Eastern or Greek church, was not affected by 
the revolution in the West. Though religion in this church 
was then at a very low ebb, and the church had experienced 
many external calamities, corruption and error had not made 
so fatal a progress in the East, as among the Latins. Rus- 
sia and a part of European Turkey were the seat of the 
Greek religion. Many of its professors, however, were found 
in various countries of Asia and Africa. In 1589, the Rua- 



394 GENERAL VIEWS. 

sian church separated from the government, though not from 
the communion, of the Greek church — a circumstance which 
has reduced the latter to an inconsiderable body. 

§ As the Russian and Greek branches of the Christian church need 
not be referred to again, it may be added, that they have undergone 
but few changes in more modern times — perhaps some improvement 
is visible. Still they seem to be little acquainted with evangelical 
piety, are in general destitute of the Bible, and consequently involv- 
ed in ignorance. Their numbers are variously estimated. Hassel 
makes them seventy-four millions, which is the highest calculation. 
Members of the Greek church are at present found scattered over a 
considerable part of Greece, the Ionian isles, Wallachia, Moldavia, 
Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Lybia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, 
and Palestine. 

It must suffice for a rapid survey of the Roman and Protestant 
churches, from the time that their separation was consummated to 
the present era, to notice the following particulars. 

First^ the Roman cAwrcA.— Desperate efforts were made by the 
popes to regain their lost power, but on the whole with little effect. 
The means which they used, as enumerated in a recent interesting 
publication,* were principally these four. 1. The employment of 
the order of Jesuits, formed in the year 1540, by Ignatius Loyola, 
whose object was to go forth, as advocates of the papal power. 
2. An attempt to christianize the heathen, in several parts of Asia 
and South America. 3. The better regulation of the internal con- 
cerns of their church. 4. The persecution of the protestants. In 
regard to the last, it may be observed, that scarcely a country, in 
which protestants were to be found, but was the scene of awful suf- 
ferings. Our blood boils with indignation at the thought, that cru- 
elties which would have disgraced Domitian, were inflicted by the 
minions of the papacy, under the sanction of the mild religion of 
the Saviour, upon his own followers. In these persecutions, fifty 
millions of protestants are computed to have perished, principally 
in Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, France, parts of Germany, and 
England. 

But all the efforts of the Roman church were in vain, except as by 
propagating her religion in heathen countries, she was for a time 
nominally mistress of greater numbers of mankind than before. 
Several causes have contributed to weaken, essentially, her power, 
wealth and splendour. These, as enumerated in the work above re- 
ferred to, are, 1. The loss of foreign conquests. 2. Unsuccessful 
contests with several European governments. 3. The suppression 
of the order of the Jesuits. 4. The revolution in France. 5. The 
abolition of the Inquisition. 

The statistics of the Roman church, as it exists at the present day, 
are as follows : 

The temporal dominions of the pope, are a small territory in 

♦ Outlines of Ecclesiastical History, by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich. 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 395 

Italy, south of the Po, containing 15,000 square miles, and 2,500,000 
inhabitants. 

Its ecclesiastical subjects are supposed to amount to 80 or 
100,000,000, in all parts of the world. Malte Brun put them down 
at 1 16,000,000. 

The countries where they most abound, are the pope's dominions 
m Italy, Spain, Portugal, and South America. These are considered 
entirely papal. France, Austria, Poland, Belgium, Ireland, and Ca- 
nada, are chiefly papal. Switzerland has 700,000 ; England half a 
million, and the United States about that number. Others are found 
in Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and the West Indies. The pope is at 
present making great efforts to extend his influence in the United 
States ; but it is believed either that the system cannot widely pre- 
vail here, or if from any temporary causes, it is destined to meet 
with some successes, that it will be in a degree modified by the ge- 
nius of our institutions, and not be the dark, intolerant, cruel, and 
licentious system that it has been in other countries. 

Second, the Protestants. — A diversity soon took place among those who se- 
parated from the fellowship of Rome, A general division of the protestants is 
into the Lutheran church, and the Reformed churches. 

1. Lutheran Church. — The Lutherans, as the name imports, were the im- 
mediate foUow^ers of Luther, who consider their church as having been es- 
tabhshed at the time of the pacification at Passau, 1552. Their standard of 
foith IS the Augsburg confession. They suffered far less from the persecu- 
tions of the times than the other portions of the refonned church, though they 
were unhappily engaged in a controversy among themselves, relating to various 
points of faith and practice. 

These controversies were followed by a low state of religion ; and this by ef- 
forts which many of the better sort uiade to bring about a happier state of 
things Some good was done by the Pietists, (so this class of people were 
called,) but far less than mijrht have been, had not their views and principles 
been misconceived or opposed. The Pietists flourished al>out the middle of 
the seventeenth century, but they degenerated after a time, and were suc- 
ceeded by a set of wild religionists, who did much mischief to the cause of aod- 
hness. To counteract this evil, the system of the Neologists was introduced, 
which consisted in the application of human philosophy to the interpretation 
of the Bible. The remedy was as bad as the disease, and the Gospel, stripped 
ot Its peculiarities, has become a dead letter very extensively in Germany It 
IS believed, however, that a better spirit is now commencing in some parts of 
the Lutheran church, while it is a happiness to know that, in other parts of it, 
both in Germany and the neighbouring churches, there are those who have all 
along maintained their integrity. 

In regard to the statistics of the Lutheran church, it may be observed, that 
portions of it are found chiefly in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, in a great 
part of Germany, particularly in the north, and in Saxony and Prussia, vvhere 
Lutheranism is the established rdisrion. Churches of this denomination also ex- 
ist in Holland, France, Russia, North America, and in the Danish West In- 
dies. 1 he number of Lutherans is probably between fifteen and twenty millions. 

x5. Rejormed C/iurc^es— These are numerous, and little more than their 
names can be here mentioned. The term " Reformed" was a title oricrinally 
^suraed by those Helvetic or Swiss churches, which adhered to certain^'tenets 
ot Zuinghus, in relation to the Sacrament. But in latter times it has a wider 
signification, and under it may be included all those sects in Protestant Chris- 
tendom, that dissent from the tenets of the Lutheran church. These are 



/ 

396 GENERAL VIEWS. 

principally the Calvinists, the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church of 
Scotland, the Moravians, the Congregationalists of New-England, the Pres- 
byterian Church in the United States, the Episcopal Church in the United 
States, the Baptists, Methodists, and Quakers. 

1. Calvinists. — The Christians so called, taken loosely for those who ex- 
plain the Bible as Calvin explained it, constituted at first the whole body of the 
Protestants as distinguished from the Lutherans. Protestant Christendom 
even now owns this distinction on the continent of Europe. They were called 
Huguenots in France, and suffered terrible persecutions. They are not known 
as one particular denomination, but constitute a portion of several bodies of 
Christians. They exist in France, Holland, Prussia, Great Britain, and 
other countries in Europe, and extensively in the United States. The sect of 
Arminians is, as to sentiment, directly opposed to the Calvinists, though per- 
sons of both persuasions are often found together in the same churches. The 
Arminian doctrines began to be propagated at the beginning of the seventeenth 
century. 

2. Church of England. — By this name is known the reformed church as 
established in England and Ireland. Its history is deeply interesting, as it 
passed a bloody orcYeal, but there is no space for particulars. The rise of pu- 
ritanism is connected with the history of the church of England, than which 
few events in the records of religion are more important ; but this also must be 
passed over. Dissenters from the church of England are tolerated in the 
United Kingdom. The establishment embraces 5,000,000 of the inhabitants : 
its livings are 10,.'300. The dissenters, or independents, in England and 
Wales, have more than 1000 congregations. 

3. Presbyterian Church of Scotland. — The date of the establishment of the 
Reformation in Scotland, is, about the year 1560. At this time the Presby- 
terian church in that country began to assume a regular form. This church 
passed through various vicissitudes, and has in general been distinguished for 
the piety of its members. It includes nearly the whole population of Scotland. 

4. Moravians. — The Moravians, or United Brethren, date their modern 
history in 1722. They are an exemplary people, and devoted to missionary 
enterprises. They have settlements in Germany, Denmark, Holland, Eng- 
land, Scotland, Ireland, Russia, and the United States. Their converts among 
the heathen, amount to 30,000. 

5. Congregationalists ojf New-England. — Under this name are known the 
descendants of a class of the English puritans, who fled from persecution to 
the wilds of America. They began the settlement of New-England, on the 
22d December, 1620. The sufferings, piety, and success of the fathers of Nevit- 
England Congregationalism, are rich topics in religious history. The Con- 
gregationalists have about 1000 churches in New-England, and about 200 in 
other parts of the United States. 

6. Presbyterian Church in the United, States. — This body of Christians 
was originally composed of a few Presbyterians from Scotland and Ireland, 
united to a like number of Congregationalists, chiefly from New-England. 
They have greatly prospered and increased, and are found throughout the 
middle, southern and western states. The number of their churches is nearly 
1900. 

Our limits preclude an account of other reformed churches, several of which 
are respectable for their character and riumbers. 



Ltl 






Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date „^y . ^^ 

PreservationTechndloqies 

A WORLD LEADER IH PAPER PRESERvrT.ON 

111 ihomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township. PA 16066- 
(724)779-2111 



